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Clinton Presidential Records
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92
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1
�White House Communications/Research:
State Of The Union Research
January 9, 1998
Technology/New Economy:
•
January 27, 1880 — Edison Granted Patent For Electric Incandescent Lamp.
[Web Almanac (Double checking fact)]
•
January 27,1926 -- First Public Demonstration Of Television.
[Web Almanac (Double checking fact)]
•
1948 — Invention Of Transistor "Most Significant Technological Advance Of The
Twentieth Century." (See bullet on 1/6/98 memo on creation of the transistor from
Crystal Fire) According to Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery (p.561-562),
the invention of the transistor — a semiconductor and immediate precursor of the silicon
semiconductor: "Transistors and the improvements that followed may well prove to be
the most significant technological advance of the twentieth century. "
•
Fifty Years Ago/1948 - First Crossing Of The Atlantic By A Jet Plane. "The first
crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by jet planes took place in 1948..." [Asimov's Chronology Of
Science And Technology, 566]
•
100 Years Ago/1898 — Argonaut I ; Beginning Of Modern Submarines. "It was not
till 1898, however, that an American mechanical engineer, Simon Lake (1866-1945),
succeeded in devising a submarine that could actually go out to sea. In that year, his
submarine Argonaut 1 sailed from Norfolk, Virginia to New York. This marked the true
beginning o f modern submarines." [Asimov's Chronology Of Science And Technology. 413]
•
200 Years Ago/1798 - Eli Whitney Invents Interchangeable Parts, A Key To The
Development Of The Industrial Revolution. "In 1798, Eli Whitney, who had invented
the cotton gin, was awarded a contract to manufacture ten thousand muskets for the
American government. Up to that time, every musket (and indeed every device
consisting of more than one part) had been made with each part adjusted to fit the
adjoining part. If a part was broken, a new one had to be adjusted manually. A
corresponding part from a similar device would not necessarily (and, in fact, would
virtually never) replace the broken part without adjustment. Whitney, however,
machined his parts with such precision that a particular part could replace any other one
of that part. The story is that when the muskets were done he brought some of them,
disassembled, and placed them at the feet of a government official. Then, picking out
parts at random, he [assembled a musket]. The development of methods for producing
interchangeable parts was an important part of the developing Industrial Revolution."
[Asimov's Chronology Of Science And Technology, 247]
�•
100 Years Ago/1896 - Henry Ford Presented His First Automobile Model.
"Henry Ford (1863-1947) presented his first model, which had a two-cylinder, four stroke
water-cooled engine, belt transmission, bar steering, and spoked wheels, in 1896." [The
History of Science And Technology: A Narrative Chronology, Vol. I -- Prehistory-1900, 419]
•
100 Years Ago/Industrial Revolution — Figures.
AUTOMOBILE: "American production [of automobiles], which barely reached 4,000
vehicles in 1900, had risen to 550,000 by 1914."
TELEPHONE: "the no-less-surprising progress made in the transmission of speech and
thought let to the installation of 200,000 telephone sets in the United States in 1890, a
figure that had risen to ten million by 1914." [The History of Science And Technology: A
Narrative Chronology. Vol. I -- Prehistory--1900, 421]
•
50 Years Ago/1946 — The First Computer - ENIAC. "Electronics was also utilized to
build computers. The first elaborator of this sort, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator And Computer), was developed by John Prosper Eckert and John William
Maunchly at the University of Pennsylvania for the United States Army. It was
completed in 1946, and was used to automatically effect ballistics calculations. Both
Aiken's machine and the ENIAC were quite imposing in size. The first was 53 feet long
and 8 feet high, while the second had a horizontal volume of 646 square feet. The
ENIAC contained 19.000 thermionic tubes and 1.500 relays, in addition to the necessary
wiring and power generators. The convenience of automatically carrying out certain
mathematical operations was made evident by ENIAC. Deservedly so, it is considered
the true first-generation computer..." [The History of Science And Technology: A Narrative
Chronology. Vol. 2 - 1900-1970, 682 (emphasis added)]
•
50 Years Ago/1948 — Ford Announced Plans For First Completely Automatic
Production Line. "In 1948, Ford announced a completely automatic production line,
which would enter into operation in 1950. In reality the factory was far from being
completely automatic, as indicated by the relatively large number of workers it employed
(4,500). Nevertheless, the degree of automatization incorporated was remarkable. The
most important feature was the succession of conveyor belts that carried and subdivided
the various engine parts, positioning them for a highly automatized working of the more
delicate parts and of those requiring the greatest reliability." [The History of Science And
Technology: A Narrative Chronology. Vol. 2 - 1900-1970, 682]
•
50 Years Ago/1948 - Word "Automation" First Appears In Writing In U.S. "It
seems that the word automation was invented and used for the first time in the United
States in 1946, while it first appeared in writing in 1948. The definition originally given
to it was: "automatic manipulation of parts used in the metallurgical and mechanical
industry." However, its meaning was immediately extended to embrace a much more
vast technological context, with a wealth of social consequences." [The History of Science
And Technology: A Narrative Chronology. Vol. 2 - 1900-1970, 682]
�•
Television: 1939 New York Times Prediction -- "No Competitor For Radio"
"Television, predicted the New York Times on the occasion of the 1939 World's Fair,
'will never be a serious competitor for radio because people must sit and keep their eyes
glued on a screen; the average American family hasn't time for it.'
"This activity now takes up more of the average person's time than anything else, apart
from sleeping and working. People in Western countries typically spend between onehalf and one-third of their leisure time in from of the set. The ability of television to
entertain, inform, titillate, and lure has made it not only the chief leisure activity of the
twentieth century but also perhaps the most influential cultural invention since the
printing press." [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our
Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (59)]
•
The Internet: Facts & Figures
"More than half of the world's Internet Users are in America."
"...the growth of the Internet has been the most astonishing technological phenomenon of
the late twentieth century. In 1990, only a few academics had heard of it. By 1997, on
some estimates,fifty-sevenmillion people were using it; if those who use it only for
electronic mail are included, the total jumps to seventy-one million.
"For a decade, from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, the number of people tapping into
the Internet doubled every twelve months. By early in the next century, the number of
users may pass 300 million, catching up rapidly with the world's current stock of 700
million telephones." [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our
Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (87)]
The first electronic mail message sent over the Internet was sent between two computers
in 1972. Perhaps 200 million e-mail messages now fly through cyberspace every
day...Between early 1997 and 1999, the number of electronic mail boxes is forecast to
double from 75 to 150 million. [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will
Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (104)]
•
The Computer: Personal vs. Business
"At much the same time, the computer became inexpensive enough to become an
affordable household gadget. Indeed in one year — 1994 — sales of computers to homes
in the United States even overtook sales of computers to businesses." [The Death Of
Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (101)]
Only in 1994 did the number of commercial computers connected to the Internet overtake
the number of academic computers. Now tens of thousands of companies, many of them
small start-ups, are racing to find profitable uses for this new technology. [The Death Of
Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives, Frances Caimcross, 1997 (10-11)]
�•
Technology And It's Impact On Government: Facts & Figures
"...Or is there...a strong link between good communications and political freedom?
Certainly dictatorial governments want to control what appears on television, as China
has done, and they often fear the Internet: in Myanmar. one of the world's most
unpleasant governments, [the government] threatens any unauthorized owner of a
networked computer with fifteen years in jail." [The Death Of Distance: How the
Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (257-258)]
"When, in December 1996, the government of Serbia tried to shut down B-92, the last
independent radio station, the station broadcast in Serbian and English on the Internet
instead....the radio station's Web site played a crucial role in distributing news of the
antigovemment protests." [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will
Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (261)]
"Lobbying politicians is universal in democracies....President Clinton, who receives one
to two thousand items of e-mail every dav. qualifies bv far as the world's most e-mailed
person. (Of course, when one gets that much e-mail, it is difficult to read everything. In
1994, Carl Bildt, then the Swedish prime minister and an inveterate nethead, sent an email to President Clinton. It was a historic moment: the first Internet exchange between
two such senior politicians. What happened? Nothing. After two days of waiting, Mr.
Bildt's staff rand the White House instead.) [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications
Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (263)]
"In 1996, 92.8 million Americans voted in the Presidential election; 94 million watched
the Super Bowl. If it were as convenient to vote as to watch the Super Bowl, more people
might do SO." [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives.
Frances Caimcross, 1997 (263)]
�HISTORICAL MILESTONES FOR SOTU
25 Years Ago:
* DEA created
* DDT banned (January) ~ carcinogen whose destructive powers first brought to wide attention
in Silent Spring.
* Skylab launched
50 Years Ago:
* Transistors invented by 3 American physicists at Bell Labs, ushering in era of modern
electronics
* Berlin airlift
* Marshall Plan became law
* OAS created
* state of Israel created
* apartheid launched
* Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by General Assembly
* Gandhi assassinated
* origin of universe first linked to "Big Bang" theory
150 Years Ago:
* Gold Rush began - Jan. 24: James W. Marshall, a mechanic supervising the building of a
sawmill on the American River, discovers a gold nugget in the Sacramento Valley, CA. Dec. 5:
Gold rush set off when President Polk announces gold discovery in annual message.
200 Years Ago:
* Public Health Service created
300 Years Ago:
* first free public library opened in American colonies in Charleston, SC (possible tie to
discussion of today's Internet?)
* Paper manufacturing begins in N. America
5 Q Years Ago:
Q
* Vasco de Gama opened direct sea route from Europe around Cape of Good Hope
* Columbus began third voyage to New World
1250 Years Ago:
* First printed newspaper appears, in Peking
�White House Communications/Research:
State Of The Union Research
January 7, 1998
Historical Points:
•
50 Years Ago/Foreign Policy ~ Creation Of Israel: The State of Israel was created and
officially recognized by President Truman 50 years ago this year on May 14, 1948. [New York
Times, 5/15/48 (front page attached); Public Papers of the President, Harry S. Truman, 1948 (258) copy attached]
•
50 Years Ago/Technology - Creation Of Transistor: On June 30, 1948 ~ 50 years ago this
year — at Bell Labs headquarters on the Hudson River, the invention of the transistor was
announced. "We have called it the Transistor because it is a resistor or semiconductor device
which can amplify electrical signals as they are transferred through it." Few if any people
thought the transistor would have an impact on computers, which at the time "could...be
counted on the fingers of a single hand, occupied large rooms and required teams of watchful
attendants.... Five decades later, the same computing power is easily crammed inside a pocket
calculator costing around $10, thanks largely to microchips and the transistors on which they
are based.... Without the transistor, the personal computer would have been inconceivable, and
the Information Age it spawned could never have happened." [Crystal Fire. Michael Riordan & Lillian
Hiddeson, 1997 (8-9) Copy of chapter 1 of Crystal Fire attached)]
•
50 Years Ago/Foreign Policy - Marshall Plan: On June 5, 1947, President Truman's
Secretary of State George C. Marshall proposed a plan for the reconstruction of Europe (the
Marshall Plan) during a speech at Harvard University. And on April 3, 1948, President Truman
signed the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948 which provided $5.3 billion for the Marshall plan.
[The Encyclopedia of American Facts and Dates. 538 (attached); Public Papers of the Presidents, Harry S.
Truman, 1948 (203) attached]
•
50 Years Ago/Foreign Policy — Berlin Airlift: On June 24, 1948, Stalin imposed a tight
blockade around the Western controlled sectors of Berlin. In June 30, Secretary of State
George C. Marshall issued a statement, as ordered by President Truman, stating that a
"maximum use of air transport will be made to supply the civilian population" of Berlin. The
Berlin Airlift continued for more than ten months, "transporting nearly 2.5 million tons of
material, keeping a city of 2 million people alive, and transforming West Berlin into a symbol
o f the West's resolve to resist communist expansion." [The Unfinished Nation: A Concise History of
the American People, Alan Brinkley, 1993 (751 ;757;820;892)]
NOTE: Also might want to talk about Berlin Wall: built before dawn on August 13,
1961 at the instruction of Khrushchev to end the mass exodus of residents of communist
East Germany through Berlin; torn down on November 9, 1989.
-- Internal Raw Materials —
�New Economy:
•
The Telephone:
In 1956, when the first transatlantic telephone cable went on-line, it had the capacity for only
eighty-nine simultaneous conversations between all of Europe and all of North America. The
cables that will be laid at the turn of the century will carry more than three million
conversations on a few strands of fiber, each the width of a human hair. [The Death Of Distance:
How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (5)]
•
The Television:
At the end of the Second World War, a mere eight thousand homes worldwide has a television
set. By 1996, that number had risen to more than 840 million - two thirds of the world's
households. [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances
Caimcross, 1997 (7)]
In fall 1963, people around the world witnessed for the first time an important but distant
political event as it was taking place. The 1962 launch of Telstar, the first private
communications satellite, had made possible the global transmission of the funeral of President
Kennedy. (Versus today's CNN live coverage of every world event.) [The Death Of Distance: How
the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Fiances Caimcross, 1997 (8)]
•
The Computer:
In 1967, a state-of-the-art IBM computer, costing $167,500, could hold a mere 13 pages of text.
[The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997
(9)]
A 486 computer chip, standard in a computer bought around 1984, could perform up to 54
million numerical calculations per second. A Pentium chip, standard in 1997, could perform up
to 200 million calculations per second. And by 2006, according to Intel forecasts, chips will be
1,000 times as powerful and will cost one-tenth as much as they did in 1996. [The Death Of
Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (9)]
The main computer processor on Apollo 13 contained less computing power than does a
modem Nintendo games machine. [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will
Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (9)]
In 1943 Thomas Watson, founder of IBM, thought that the world market had room for about
five computers. Today, 40 percent of homes in the United States contain a computer. [The Death
Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (9-10)]
- Internal Raw Materials -
�The Internet is the result of an experiment by the U.S. Defense Department's Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the 1960s. Responding to the limitations of computers in
the 1960s, the ARPA experiment was intended to connect computers across the country as a
way to exchange messages and share processing power. The network initially linked only
university computers. Because these computers all used different operating standards,
development of a common protocol became a fundamental requirement of the network. The
result was Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, more commonly known as TCP/IP
— the language o f the Internet. [The Death Of Distance: How the Communications Revolution Will Change
Our Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (10-11)]
Only in 1994 did the number of commercial computers connected to the Internet overtake the
number of academic computers. Now tens of thousands of companies, many of them small
start-ups, are racing to find profitable uses for this new technology. [The Death Of Distance: How
the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives. Fiances Caimcross, 1997 (10-11)]
Kenneay. (versus too;
/ s L.ININ live coverage oV every world event.) [The Death Of Distance: How
ilion Will C'hanue (
Lives. Frances Caimcross, 1997 (8)]
the Communications Revo
•
The Computer:
�THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
A EIA FCS
M RC N A T
ADD TS
N AE
GORTON CARRUTH
TENTH EDITION
HarperCollinsP^/is^ers
�How to Use
The Encyclopedia of
American Facts dc Dates
The encyclopedia presents in one volume a vast number of the most
interesting events from America's past arranged in both concurrent and
chronological order. To make the encyclopedia even more useful, it has
a detailed index for instant and easy consulting.
The subject matter is divided into four fields of interest arranged
on every pair of facing pages in four vertical columns. Each column
continues on the following pair of facing pages. The subjects listed at the
tops of the columns are representative. Within the four columns you will
find entries on the following topics:
I
II
Architecture
Colonization
Art
Disasters
Discovery. ExplorBallet
Books and Pubation, Settlement
lishing
Domestic Affairs
Censorship
Foreign Affairs
Drama
Immigration
Jazz
Indian Affairs
Monuments
Laws
Movies
Military Affairs
Music
Politics and
Painting
Government
Periodicals
Slavery
Popular EnterStatehood
Suffrage
tainment
Tariffs"
Radio
Sculpture
Temperance
Trade Agreements
Songs
Treaties
Television
Theater
Vital Statistics
Wars and Battles
Westward Expansion
Women
III
IV
Agriculture
Business
Colleges and
Universities
Communications
Economics
Education
Finance
Highways and
Roads
Industry
Inventions
Labor
Medicine
Philosophy
Religion
Scholarship
Science
TechnologyTransportation
Crime
Dress
Expositions
Fashions
Folklore
Foods
Furniture
Games
Holidays
Manners
Sayings
Social Issues
Sports
�1947 - 1948 PRES. HARRY S TRUMAN
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
II
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
based, was essential before progress could be made in
the economic rehabilitation of Europe.
June 14 Peace treaties between the U.S. and Italy,
Rumania, Bulgaria, and Hungary were ratified by the
U.S. Senate and signed by Pres. Truman.
June 26-28 The Prohibition Party nominated Claude
A. Watson of California for the presidency.
July 18 The Presidential Succession Act was signed by
Pres. Truman. The act designated the Speaker of the
House and then the president of the Senate pro tempore next in succession after the vice president.
July 25 The National Security Act of 1947 was passed
by Congress. The act unified the armed forces, including a newly created Air Force, within a national military establishment headed by a new official of Cabinet rank, the secretary of defense. It also established
the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency. The act was signed on July 26 by Pres.
Truman, who nominated Sec. of the Navy James V.
Forrestal as the first secretary of defense. Forrestal
was confirmed by Congress on July 27.
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
Feb. 18 The Medium, a two-act opera by Gian-Cirl
Menotti, was produced at the Heckscher Theater i:
New York City by the Ballet Theater. On May I r
opened on Broadway at the Ethel Barrymore Theat.and achieved a resounding popular success.
Mar. 13 Brigadoon by Alan Jay Lerner and Fredcrul
Loewe opened at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New Yor,
City. The musical told the story of two American ladin a mythical town in Scotland.
Mar. 13 Academy Awards were presented to Tlu- Ho:
Years of Our Lives as the outstanding motion pictur.
of 1946 and to its star, Fredric March, as best actor; !•
Olivia de Havilland as best actress for To Each //'•
Own; to Harold Russell, an amputee who had IIOM ;
acted before, as best supporting actor for The #<•'-•'
Years of Our Lives; and to Anne Baxter as best supporting actress for The Razor's Edge.
Apr. 7 The first annual Antoinette Perry, or Torn
Awards, for outstanding contributions to the Anun
can theater during the 1946-1947 season, were presented. Among those honored were Jose Ferrer for hiperformance in Cyrano de Bergerac; Fredric March
for Years Ago; Ingrid Bergman for Joan of LorrawHelen Hayes for Happy Birthday; and Patricia V
for Aiiother Part o f the Forest. The awards won
named after Antoinette Perry, who died in 1946. S>
h
served as director of the wartime board of the American Theater Wing.
Apr. 26 Symphony in A by John Powell was given i •
first performance by the Detroit Symphony
O ^
tra. Commissioned
by the National Federation ^
Music Clubs, the symphony was one of the last nu
works in the avowedly nationalistic movement anioi t
U.S. composers.
..
May 5 Pulitzer prizes were awarded for the folio" " fiction, A l l the King's Men by Robert Penn Warn ^
biography, The Autobiography o f Willio" •
White; history, Scientists Against Timeby}M"
ney Baxter I I I ; poetry. Lord Weary's Castle by ho >
Lowell.
Dec. 3 A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee^
liams opened at the Ethel Barrvmore Theatre m _ ^
York City. Set in New Orleans^ the play teP'Sj^-ho
disintegration of its central character,
Dubois, in face of the brutality of modern li»
1
rch
j
Sept. 17-19 A severe hurricane swept in from the
Gulf of Mexico, causing widespread damage in Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana and killing at least 100
people. On Sept. 21, as an aftermath of the hurricane,
floodwaters near New Orleans destroyed crops and
killed about 60 people.
v
eS
Dec. 27 A record-breaking snowstorm struck the
Northeast, dumping a record 25.8 in. of snow on New
York City and causing nearly 80 deaths in the North
Atlantic states. Stalled trains stranded commuters.
Marooned suburbanites crowded downtown hotels.
e
1948
The administration and the lawmakers fought all
year. Pres. Harry S Truman called the 80th Congress the
"worst in our history." One of the chief areas of disagreement was over the supposed presence of communists in governmental positions. The House Committee
on Un-American Activities wrote alarming reports.
1
World War I I was one of the leading subjects^
year's books, and first novels dealing with the
.
Norman Mailer and Irwin Shaw were
^ | isio'
best. The newest communication medium
entual
was cursed in many quarters as the evem""- d,| ^ .
of American reading, theater, and movies. A
h>
a n r l o n
1
t e
e V
v
c
1
�T
1947 - 1948
«s and Industry; Science;
i ines»
0U
. philosophy and Religion
cation
a
9
III
IV
strike at any time; and immunity from
f ' ^ ' ,r lawsuits over breaches of contract and
' ' 'd'iin;»g New obligations for labor unions
' i'd' publication of financial statements and a
0
, ,11,, 0
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
June 24 The PGA golf tournament was won by Jim
Ferrier.
e
1
in -'
' .-.liership in the Communist Partv.
44 The firs' supersonic aircraft, the Bell X - l
Oc'^ i plane, was piloted faster than the speed of
' nd fo'' ' ' '
'
Capt. Charles E. Yeager,
' "xF during a test at Muroc Air Force Base, Calif.
;1
r i
PRES. HARRY S TRUMAN
r
l
i e
r s t
t
r n e
23 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
.'. . arded jointly to Carl F. Cori and his wife Gerty
\ Tori of Washington University in St. Loijis for "the
discovery of how glycogen is catalytically converted,"
d to Dr. Bernardo A. Houssay of Buenos Aires,
Argentina, for his studies of the hormone produced by
the pituitary gland. The Coris were the third husband
md wife team to be awarded a Nobel Prize in the field
ol scientific research. Born in Czechoslovakia, they
came to the U.S. in 1922.
iu
in
Oct. 29 In an early attempt at producing artificial
weather, the General Electric Company seeded
aiimilus clouds with dry ice over a forest fire at Concord. N.H.; rain fell, drenching the area. But because
.1 natural rain followed soon after the experiment, it
uas impossible to determine how effective the seeding had been. During 1947 the press carried much
romment about artificial weather, but most meteorologists thought rain would result only from the seeding
of clouds already at shower stage.
June 29 The U.S. Women's Open golf tournament
was won by Betty Jameson.
July 4-5 At the Wimbledon tennis championships in
England, Jack Kramer won the men s singles title and
Margaret Osborne won the women's singles. Kramer
teamed with Robert Falkenburg to win the men's
doubles, Doris Hart and Patricia Canning Todd won
the women's doubles, and Louise Brough teamed
with John E. Bromwich of Australia to win the mixed
doubles.
July 8 The 14th annual baseball All-Star Game was
won by the American League, defeating the National
League 2-1.
July 21 The Baseball Hall of Fame inducted Carl
Flubbell, Robert M. "Lefty" Grove, Gordon "Mickey"
Cochrane, and Frank Frisch, as well as 11 baseball
greats elected to the Hall of Fame in 1946.
Sept. 6 The Miss America title was won by Barbara
Walker, 21, from Memphis, Tenn., at the annual pageant in Atlantic City, N.J.
Sept. 14 The U.S. Lawn Tennis Association singles
championships were won by Jack Kramer in the
men's division and Louise Brough in the women's
division.
Sept. 30-Oct. 6 The 44th annual World Series was
won by the New York Yankees (AL), defeating the
Brooklyn Dodgers (NL) four games to three.
Dec. 28 The N F L championship was won by the Chicago Cardinals, who defeated the Philadelphia Eagles
28-21.
Dec. 30 In the Davis Cup international tennis challenge round, the U.S. defeated Australia four matches
to one.
1948
bolstered by increased defense expenditures and a
•'I* loreign-aid program, American industry enjoyed
'•'•''k year. Relations between labor and management
''^ particularly mellow. General Motors granted an
• ^"'"atic cost-of-living increase to some 265,000 hourly
' ers. Strikes were fewer and less violent. However,
A
,r
;
The major leagues provided baseball fans with the
first post-season playoff in the history of the American
League when the Cleveland Indians ended the year
with the same won-and-lost record as the Boston Red
Sox. This year the Baseball Hall of Fame elected two
new members: Herbert J. Pennock, the pitcher, and
�1948 PRES. HARRY S TRUMAN
538
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
which the president largely ignored, calling one finding
a "red herring." The president maintained that the FBI
together with the Justice Department was more than
equal to the task of cleaning house. Some 2,000,000 federal employees were investigated; as a direct result, 526
resigned and 98 were dismissed. In foreign affairs, the
European Recovery Program continued with military
aid to Greece, Turkey, and China. The most dramatic
development of the year was the Soviet blockade of Berlin, which the U.S. broke by maintaining an airlift to resupply the beleaguered city.
Jan. 8 The cost of European relief for the first 15
months of the Marshall Plan was estimated as
$16,800,000,000 by Sec. of State George C. Marshall.
Mar. 30 The Rent Control Bill, which extended controls until Mar. 31, 1949, was signed by Pres. Truman.
The bill also designated an Emergency Court of
Appeals to decide on decontrols or increases recommended by local boards but rejected by the federal
housing expediter.
Apr. 3 The Foreign Assistance Act of 1948 was signed
by Pres. Truman. The act provided $5,300,000,000
for a one-year European Recovery Program, known
popularly as the Marshall Plan. The act also provided
$275,000,000 for military aid to Greece and Turkey,
$463,000,000 for economic and military aid to China,
and $60,000,000 for a UN Fund for Children.
May 2 The Socialist Labor Party nominated Edward
A. Teichert for the presidency.
May 9 The Socialist Party nominated Norman M .
Thomas for the presidency for the sixth consecutive
time.
broadcasts of concerts and operas led to creation of
music festivals and commissions for new composers,
while movie studios suffered a 25% drop in employ
ment, in part due to stiff European competition.
Among books published this year was Raintree
County by Ross Lockridge, a first novel that achieved
both critical and popular success. It was to be the
author's only book. He died on March 6 at the age of 33.
an apparent suicide. Other books published this year
included the best-selling religious novel The Big Fisherman by Lloyd C. Douglas; Crusade in Europe by Dvvight
D. Eisenhower; The Naked and the Dead by Norman
Mailer, the author's first novel and one of the best fictional works about World War I I ; and The Young Lions
by Irwin Shaw, another first novel, also about World
War I I and a critical and popular success.
The first Supreme Court hearing on a state obscenity
law related to a specific book concerned Edmund Wilson's Memoirs o f Hecate County and its suppression in
New York State. The Court was deadlocked on the question and thus upheld the lower court conviction of the
publisher.
Ben Shahn completed his painting Miners' Wives, a
work reflecting the artist's lifelong concern with social
injustice. The work portrayed a woman receiving the
news of the death of her husband.
Popular song hits of the year included "Buttons and
Bows," "Now Is the Hour," "Nature Boy," "You CaH
Evervbodv Darling," "On a Slow Boat to China," and
"All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth."
Notable musical premieres included Piano Concerto
No. 1 by Howard Hanson, String Quartet for oboe, violin, cello, and piano and the Seventh String Quartet b\
Bohuslav Martinu; and Survivor f r o m Warsaw, a cantata
by Arnold Schoenberg.
o r
June 24 The Republican National Convention nominated Gov. Thomas E. Dewey of New York for the
presidency. The following day, Gov. Earl Warren of
California was chosen as the vice presidential candidate.
June 24 The Selective Service Act was signed by Pres.
Truman. It provided for the registration of all men
between 18 and 25 and the draft of enough men to
constitute an Army of 837,000, a Navv and Marine
Corps of 666,882, and an Air Force of 502,000.
The first major postwar architectural competition. '
design of the Jefferson National Expansion memorial u
St. Louis, Mo., was won by a team headed by Eero Saan
nen. The group, which included an architect, a ' .?!j
a painter, and a landscape architect, won the $40.1
prize with their design for a huge parabolic arch ma
of stainless steel.
scU i:>t
1
Red Cross headquarters in San Francisco, Calif-.
built from designs by Gardner A. Dailey. The rib
surface texture of its poured concrete walls was part'
larly notable.
r e v l i e
Jan. 15 Make Mine Manhattan, a musical
.^
Arnold B. Horwitt and Richard Lewine, opened at ^
Broadhurst Theatre in New York City. Its
included a relative newcomer, Sid Caesar.
f
June 25 The Displaced Persons Bill was signed by
Pres. Truman. It admitted 205,000 European
�1948
giness and Industry; Science;
. philosophy and Religion
III
IV
t on had a number of new problems to consider,
^ i K ' " j p ] y rising enrollments; inadequate faciliiiif' icliii*f ilure of teachers to gain better economic sta"
' lv because rising prices offset salary increases;
'" ' f teachers; a decline in enrollment of veteri ,-t ige O'
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olleges and universities; and an ever-swelling
'''' foreign students on exchange scholarships.
y c i n was produced bv Dr. Benjamin Minge
at Leder'.e Laboratories, Pearl River, N.Y.
m
X u r e
r
• mipst of pernicious anemia was completed with
/'^pqUcai.
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discovery of vitamin B-12, the substance in liver
hf
\tr cts responsible for earlier cures. Vitamin B-12 was
'"^jd to have phenomenal efficiency. A daily dosage
valent to one hundredth of a grain of salt was suffiInHo cure a victim of pernicious anemia, and the
'
quantity taken twice a week maintained the cured
!iJson in good health.
111
:l,Ul
u
n i e
Workmen's compensation laws were adopted in Misjppi the last state in the Union to do so.
| S
The Polaroid Land Camera, patented by Edwin H.
j jn 1947, went on sale. The first camera to carry its
an darkroom, it processed prints in one minute. It was
, 1 instant hit with professional photographers, who saw
1
:he value in obtaining instant prints of subjects. The
i'nlaroid gave them greater flexibility in experimenting
.nth lighting and settings for their subjects.
I
i n c
Jan. 2 It was announced that atomic research for
industrial development would be the major concern
of a new partnership between the University of Chicago and seven corporations.
Jan. 12 Legal education facilities for blacks in Oklahoma equal to those for whites were ordered by a U.S.
Mipreme Court ruling.
i
j
i
!
2 In political endorsements by labor, the A F L
'vecutive council decided not to support Henry A.
U.ilhice, candidate on the Progressive ticket. The
' I d executive board had previously passed a similar
'hition.
:,M
5
Nav
A new U.S. rocketry record was set by the
y A speed of 3000 mph and an altitude of 78 miles
PRES. HARRY S TRUMAN
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
Harold "Pie" Traynor, longtime third baseman for the
Pittsburgh Pirates. Plaques honoring the two were
unveiled at Cooperstown, N.Y., in the 1949 annual ceremonies. In golf the top money winners were Ben Hogan,
$36,812, and Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias,
$3400. Meanwhile, the nation's crime rate remained
steady. Racketeers concentrated on large-scale gambling operations, some of which had the tacit approval
of local authorities. In fashion, the so-called New Look,
in vogue last year, was rejected. Women now wanted
the more natural lines of the body to show . Notables
who died included George Herman "Babe" Ruth, the
Sultan of Swat, Aug. 16, at 53.
Jan. 1 In college football bowl games, the results
were Southern Methodist 13, Penn State 13 in the
Cotton Bowl; Georgia Tech 20, Kansas 14 in the
Orange Bowl; Michigan 49, Southern California 0 in
the Rose Bowl; and Texas 27, Alabama 7 in the Sugar
Bowl. This season the AP poll chose Notre Dame the
national collegiate champions of 1947.
Jan. 30-Feb. 8 At the Winter Olympics in St. Moritz,
Switzerland, the U.S. won three gold medals and finished third in unofficial team standings, behind Sweden and Switzerland.
Feb. 13 At the world figure skating championships in
Davos, Switzerland, the men's singles title was won by
Richard T. Button, the first U.S. skater to win the
men's title.
Mar. 13 The NCAA basketball tournament was won
by Kentucky, which defeated Indiana State 82-70.
Apr. 3 U.S. figure skating championships were won in
Colorado Springs, Colo., by Gretchen Merrill,
women's singles, her sixth consecutive win; Richard
T. Button, men's singles; Karol and Peter Kennedy,
pairs; Lois Waring and Walter H. Bainbridge, Jr.,
dance.
Apr. 7-14 The N H L Stanley Cup was won for the second year in a row by the Toronto Maple Leafs, who
defeated the Detroit Red Wings in four straight
games.
Apr. 11 The Masters golf tournament was won by
Claude Harmon.
Apr. 19 The 52nd Boston Marathon was won by
Gerard Cote of St. Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada, with
a time of 2 hrs., 31 min., 2 sec.
May 1 The 74th annual Kentucky Derby was won by
Citation, with a time of 2:05 /5. The jockey was Eddie
Arcaro.
May 15 The 73rd annual Preakness Stakes was won by
Citation, with a time of 2:02 /5. The jockey was Eddie
Arcaro.
May 25 The PGA golf tournament was won by Ben
Hogan.
May 31 The 32nd Indianapolis 500 auto race was won
by Mauri Rose, completing the 500-mile course in 4
2
3
�1948 PRES. HARRY S TRUMAN
.-i4li
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
displaced persons, including 3000 nonquota orphans.
July 15 The Democratic National Convention nominated Pres. Truman for reelection, and Sen. Alben W.
Barkley of Kentucky for the vice presidency.
July 17 The States Rights Democrats nominated Gov.
Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for the presidency and Gov. F ielding L. Wright of Mississippi for
the vice presidency. The political group, also known
as the Dixiecrats, were members of the Democratic
Party who had walked out of the national convention
in opposition to the party's strong civil rights platform.
July 20 Twelve American Communist Party leaders
were indicted and charged with advocating overthrow of the U.S. government.
Feb. 18 Mister Roberts, by Thomas Heggen .imi
Joshua Logan based on Heggen's best-selling novel,
opened at the Alvin Theatre in New York City. Heim
Fonda played the title role. The play became one ui
the hits of the season.
Mar. 20 Academy Awards were presented to Genii, man's Agreement as the outstanding motion pictur.
of 1947; to Ronald Colman as best actor for A Douhh
Life; to Loretta Young as best actress for The Farmrr\
Daughter; to Edmund Gwenn as best supportme
actor for Miracle on 34th Street; and to Celeste Holm
as best supporting actress for Gentleman's Aumment.
Mar. 28 Tony Awards were presented to Mister Rob
erts as outstanding play of the 1947-1948 season;
Henry Fonda for his performance in Mister Roberts.
Paul Kelly for Command Decision; Basil Rathbonefor
The Heiress; Judith Anderson for Medea; and Jessica
Tandy for A Streetcar Named Desire.
July 23-25 The Progressive Party nominated Henry
A. Wallace for the presidency and Sen. Glen H . Taylor
for the vice presidency.
Apr. 30
Inside U.S.A., a musical revue bv Howard
Dietz and Arthur Schwartz, opened at the New Cem
tury Theatre in New York City. Its cast included
Beatrice Lillie and Jack Haley.
Aug. 2-6 The Communist Party Convention at New
York City supported the Progressive Party nomination of Henry A. Wallace for the presidency.
May 3 Pulitzer prizes were awarded to the following
fiction, Tales o f the South Pacific by James Michener:
biography. Forgotten First Citizen: John Bigelou- O
)
Margaret Clapp; history, Across the Wide Missouri b|
Bernard De Voto; poetry, Age o f Anxiety by VV. 1^
Auden; drama, A Streetcar Named Desire by Tenne>
see Williams.
Nov. 2 Harry S Truman was reelected president of the
United States in a major political upset. Alben W.
Barkley was elected vice president. Political analysts
and polls had predicted that Truman's Republican
opponent, Gov. Thomas E. Dewey of New York,
would win. The electoral vote was Truman 304,
Dewev 189. The popular vote was Truman 24,104,836; Dewey 21,969,500; Strom Thurmond, States
Rights Democrat, 1,169,312; Henry A. Wallace, Progressive. 1,157,172; Norman M. Thomas, Socialist,
132,138; and Claude A. Watson, Prohibition Party,
103,343. In congressional elections the Democrats
gained nine Senate seats for a 54-42 majority. In the
House they gained 75 seats for a 263-171 lead, with
one seat going to a minor party.
Oct. 6 Summer and Smoke by Tennessee William^
play likened in tone and poetic intensity to ^
author's previous successes, opened at the Music
in New York City. It was quietly received by both c
ics and audiences.
Nov. 4 The Nobel Prize for Literature was aw arded t<
T. S. Eliot. Born in St. Louis in 1888. Eliot move_
England and in 1927 became a British subject. A' ^
his works of poetrv were The Waste Land (192-)Ash Wednesday (1930).
11
1
Dec. 16 Lend an Ear, a musical revue by ^''^''| |,
Gaynor, opened at the National Theatre in New
City.
r
Dec. 15 Alger Hiss, a former State Department official, was indicted by a federal grand jury on two
counts of perjury. Hiss, who had worked in the State
Department in 1937 and 1938, denied giving official
documents to Whittaker Chambers, a self-proclaimed
courier for a communist spy group. He also denied
ev er meeting Chambers after Jan. 1, 1937.
ba
>(
Dec. 30 Kiss Me, Kate, a hit musical comedy ^ . d
Shakespeare's Taming o f the Shrew with '""J' 'ot'
lyrics by Cole Porter and book by Bella and ^ ill
Spewack, opened at the New Century Thea
New York Citv.
in
;
i
1
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1948 PRES. HARRY S TRUMAN
541
Business and Industry; Science;
education; Philosophy and Religion
^
4*
P achieved during tests at White Sands, N'.Mex.
were
u
8 Religious education in public schools was
declared a violation of the First Amendment by the
U.S. Supreme Court.
r
Mar. 15 More than 200,000 soft-coal miners struck for
., 'inore liberal old-age pension plan. On Apr. 12 the
ininers were sent back to the pits by John L. Lewis
jfter a compromise was reached on the pension fund.
May 1"
nationwide railroad strike was averted
when the federal government was granted an injunction. Pres. Harry S Truman had threatened to order
the Army to seize the railroads.
May 25 The first sliding-scale wage contract, in which
wages depended on the cost of living, was signed byGeneral Motors and the United Auto Workers. It
granted some 225,000 workers an immediate increase
of 11 cents an hour.
June 3 The world's largest reflector telescope was
dedicated. It was the 200-inch Hale telescope at Palomar Mountain Observatory, maintained by the California Institute of Technology.
July 31 Idlewild International Airport in New York
City, the largest in the world, was dedicated by Pres.
Truman.
Aug. 16 The Anti-Inflation Act was passed. The Federal Reserve System instituted curbs on installment
buying.
Sept. 25 Information on a jet plane that could travel
almost 900 mph was released by the U.S. Air Force.
Nov. 15 The first American-built electric locomotive
with a gas turbine was tested by the General Electric
and American Locomotive companies at Erie, Pa.
Nov. 20 A new balloon altitude record was claimed by
the U.S. Army Signal Corps. It was 140,000 feet (26 /2
miles).
1
IV
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
hrs., 10 min., 23.33 sec, with an average speed of
119.81 mph. It was his second consecutive win.
June 12 The 80th annual Belmont Stakes was won by
Citation, with a time of 2:2875. Citation thus became
the eighth horse in history to win the Triple Crown
of racing. The jockey was Eddie Arcaro, who chalked
up his second Triple Crown victory.
June 12 The U.S. Open golf tournament was won by
Ben Hogan, with a tournament record-breaking score
of 276, five strokes lower than the previous tournament record.
June 25 The world heavyweight boxing championship was successfully defended by Joe Louis, who
defeated "Jersey Joe" Walcott in an 11-round bout.
July 2 At the Wimbledon tennis championships in
England, Robert Falkenburg won the men's singles
title. The next day Louise Brough won the women's
singles, then teamed with Margaret Osborne du Pont
to win the women's doubles, and with John Bromwich
of Australia to win the mixed doubles.
July 13 The 15th annual baseball All-Star Game was
won by the American League, which beat the
National League 5-2.
July 29-Aug. 14 At the Summer Olympics in London, England, the U.S. won 33 gold medals and the
unofficial team championship.
Aug. 15 The U.S. Women's Open golf tournament
was won by Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias.
Sept. 6 In the Davis Cup international tennis challenge round, the U.S. won its fifth straight match from
Australia, sweeping the round 5-0 and retaining the
trophy.
Sept. 11 The Miss America title was won by Beatrice
Vella "Bebe" Shopp, 18, from Minnesota, at the
annual pageant in Atlantic City, N.J.
Sept. 19 The U.S. Lawn Tennis Association singles
championships were won by 20-year-old Richard A.
"Pancho" Gonzales in the men's division and Margaret Osborne du Pont in the women's division.
Oct. 6-11 The 45th annual World Series was won by
the Cleveland Indians (AL), defeating the Boston
Braves (NL) four games to two. The Indians had won
the American League pennant by beating the Boston
Red Sox 8-3 in a single-game playoff, the first time a
playoff was needed in the league.
Oct. 24 The term Cold War to characterize EastWest relations after World War I I was given national
prominence after a speech by Bernard M. Baruch
before the Senate War Investigating Committee. "Although the war is over," said Baruch, "we are in the
midst of a cold war which is getting warmer."
Dec. 19 The N F L championship was won by the Philadelphia Eagles, who defeated the Chicago Cardinals
7-0.
�THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
A EIA FCS
M RC N A T
ADD TS
N AE
GORTON CARRUTH
TENTH EDITION
HarperCollinsA<Ms/?er5
�How to Use
The Encyclopedia of
American Facts & Dates
The encyclopedia presents in one volume a vast number of the most
interesting events from America's past arranged in both concurrent and
chronological order. To make the encyclopedia even more useful, it has
a detailed index for instant and easy consulting.
The subject matter is divided into four fields of interest arranged
on every pair of facing pages in four vertical columns. Each column
continues on the following pair of facing pages. The subjects listed at the
tops of the columns are representative. Within the four columns you will
find entries on the following topics:
I
II
Colonization
Architecture
Art
Disasters
Discovery. ExplorBallet
ation, Settlement
Books and PubDomestic Affairs
lishing
Foreign Affairs
Censorship
Immigration
Drama
Indian Affairs
Jazz
Laws
Monuments
Military Affairs
Movies
Politics and
Music
Government
Painting
Slavery
Periodicals
Statehood
Popular EnterSuffrage
tainment
Tariffs
Radio
Temperance
Sculpture
Trade Agreements
Songs
Treaties
Television
Vital Statistics
Theater
Wars and Battles
Westward Expansion
Women
III
IV
Agriculture
Business
Colleges and
Universities
Communications
Economics
Education
Finance
Highways and
Roads
Industry
Inventions
Labor
Medicine
PhilosophyReligion
Scholarship
Science
Technology
Transportation
Crime
Dress
Expositions
Fashions
Folklore
Foods
Furniture
Games
Holidays
Manners
Sayings
Social Issues
Sports
�1898 PRES. WILLIAM MCKINLEY
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popuh
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
Entertainment; Architecture; Thea
1898
Victory in the Spanish-American War made the U.S.
a nation with global interests. In one brief clash of arms
the U.S. acquired Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands from Spain. In addition, Cuba was granted
independence, with Spain assuming its national debt.
Many Americans were appalled by the new U.S. foreign
policy, which they equated with imperialism. Andrew
Carnegie, the steel magnate and philanthropist, offered
to buy the Philippines for $20,000,000 and give the
country its freedom. Many other Americans, however,
talked of manifest destiny and the duty of the U.S. to
spread its form of civilization far and wide.
Jan. 25 The U.S. battleship Maine arrived at Havana,
Cuba, on a friendly visit. The real purpose of the
Maine was to protect American life and property.
Feb. 9 The de Lome letter, written by the Spanish
minister to the U.S., Enrique de Lome, was published
in William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal. This
private letter was stolen by Cuban revolutionists from
the mails in Havana. It characterized Pres. William
McKinley as weak and questioned his political integrity. De Lome immediately resigned.
Feb. 15 The U.S. battleship Maine exploded in
Havana harbor; two officers and 258 crew members
were killed. U.S. sympathies were already strongly
with Cuba in its revolt against Spanish tyranny, and
the Maine disaster made U.S. intervention inevitable.
The cause of the explosion and the people responsible
for it were never determined.
Apr. 11 Congressional authorization to use armed
force to end the civil war in Cuba was requested by
Pres. McKinley. In Spain Prime Minister Praxedes
Mateo Sagasta made a last-minute attempt to avoid
war by offering Cubans limited autonomy.
Apr. 19 Congress adopted a joint resolution on Cuba,
which stated that the U.S. had no plans for Cuban
annexation, demanded Spain's withdrawal, and
authorized the president to use military force. Spain
immediately severed diplomatic relations.
Apr. 20 An ultimatum to Spain was cabled to U.S.
minister Stewart L. Woodford after Pres. McKinley
had signed the Cuban resolution. The cable was
intended for delivery to the Spanish government, but
Woodford's credentials were returned to him on Apr.
21, before he could deliver his message.
Apr. 22 A blockade of Cuban ports was ordered by
Pres. McKinley. Rear Adm. William T. Sampson sailed
from Key West, Fla., with a sizable fleet.
Apr. 22 The Spanish ship Buena Ventura was captured by the U.S. gunboat Nashville, the first prize of
the Spanish-American War.
Apr. 22 The Volunteer Army Act was passed by
Congress. It authorized organization of the First
Sentimentality seemed to hold sway in the
song, resulting in the composition of some musii
pieces that were at least as popular for their words as
their music. An outstanding example, "The Rosary
Ethelbert Nevin with lyrics by Robert Cameron Rog
was published this year. It was the most popular song
the U.S. for a quarter of a century. Nevin was a piaj
and composer who wrote other similar music, such
"Narcissus" (1891), and who set to music such poems
Eugene Field's "Little Boy Blue."
L
i
Among books published this year was David Har
by Edward Noyes Westcott, a Syracuse lawyer,
novel had been rejected by six publishers before 1
accepted by D. Appleton & Company. It was publish
shortly after Westcott's death from tuberculosis on 1
31. The story, centering on a shrewd, humorous,
lovable small-town banker, sold 400,000 copies by Fe
1, 1901, and 1,000,000 in 35 years. It was dramatized'j
1900 and twice made into a movie, the second time\
Will Rogers in the title role. Other books published I
year included The Open Boat and Other Stories by J
phen Crane; Mr. Dooley in Peace and War by Peter!
ley Dunne; The Turn o f the Screw by Henry Janies|
masterpiece of horror by a master of English prose; J"
oners o f Hope by Mary Johnston, a novel of colonial
ginia; When Knighthood Was in Flower by Ch
Major, a historical romance that became a best sell
The Adventures o f Francois by S. Weir Mitchell, a |
resque novel of the French Revolution; and Songs)
the Ghetto by Morris Rosenfeld, an immigrant froml
sian Poland, translation by Leo Wiener.
1
�T
1898
379
Business and Industry; Science;
education; Philosophy and Religion
4A
PRES. WILLIAM MCKINLEY
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
IV
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
1898
"XTthe end of the century neared, American industry
. becoming the most productive in the world. Steel
oduction had passed that of Great Britain in 1865; by
[900 it was 10,000,000 tons a year, and the U.S. was
turning out more than Great Britain and Germany combined. Cotton textile mills were built in the South as
well as the North, and by 1900 the two regions were
^ing 3,500,000 bales of cotton a year. Meat packing was
becoming an assembly line process, and large firms in
Midwest were leading the way. The Niagara Falls
nower plant had ushered in the era of hydroelectric
power in 1894, and steam turbines and electric motors
were beginning to change the face of American industry.
lS
U
A great deal of entertainment for the general public
was being provided by amusement parks, usually
located on the outskirts of cities and often built by traction companies to create traffic for their trolley car lines.
Whole families could enjoy parks such as Palisades
Amusement Park in New Jersey, just across the Hudson
R. from New York City, which opened in 1897. Among
the many attractions at these parks were roller coasters,
merry-go-rounds, shoot the chutes, dance halls, bathing
beaches, and, of course, food and drink.
The impassioned slogan "Remember the Maine"
became the war cry of Americans urging war with
Spain. The battleship Maine had been destroyed by an
explosion while docked at Havana. The American public was led to believe that it had been blown up by
agents of Spain. This feeling supported American
resentment against Spanish oppression of Cuban nationalism.
The Biltmore Forest School was opened by Dr. Carl
\ Schenck in Biltmore, N.C. The school offered a oneyear course in forestry plus a six-month course of field
'raining. The school, which closed in 1914, was the first
'orestry school in the U.S.
This year's national college football championship
was won by Harvard, with a record of 11 wins, no losses,
no ties.
�1898 PRES. WILLIAM MCKINLEY
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
Volunteer Cavalry, or the Rough Riders, under command of Col. Leonard Wood and Lt. Col. Theodore
Roosevelt.
Apr. 23 Pres. McKinley issued a call for 125,000 volunteers to fight in the war with Spain.
Apr. 24 The Spanish-American War officially began
when Spain declared war on the U.S. The following
day Congress passed a declaration of war, effective
Apr. 21.
May 1 At the Battle of Manila Bay, the six-ship Asiatic
squadron of Commodore George Dewey decisively
defeated a larger but outgunned and underprepared
Spanish fleet. The U.S. flotilla emerged virtually
unscathed, with only eight wounded. The Spanish
fleet was destroyed, with heavy casualties. The action
cleared the way for U.S. occupation of Manila in
August.
May 25 A new call for volunteers, 75,000 strong, was
issued by Pres. McKinley.
May 25 The first troop expedition to Manila set sail
from San Francisco with some 2500 men.
May 28 Native citizenship, the Supreme Court
declared, is without respect to race or color; a child
born of Chinese parents in this country is a U.S. citizen and cannot be deported under the Chinese Exclusion Act.
June 10 The War Revenue Act was passed by Congress and signed by the president on June 13. The bill
authorized the government to make a loan of up to
$400,000,000 and place a tax on liquor, tobacco, flour,
and other items. Actuallv, the government sold onlv
$200,000,000 of 3% bonds.
June 11 About 600 U.S. Marines landed at Guantanamo, Cuba. They engaged Spanish forces the next
day.
June 12-14 U.S. forces embarked from Key West, Fla.
Some 17,000 troops under Gen. William R. Shafter
sailed to undertake capture of Santiago de Cuba, the
chief Spanish naval base in Cuba.
June 15 Annexation of Hawaii was approved in a
joint resolution adopted by the House of Representatives, and by the Senate on June 17. It was signed by
Pres. McKinley on July 7.
June 21 Guam, one of the Mariana Islands in the
western Pacific, surrendered to Capt. Henry Glass on
the U.S.S. Charleston. The Spanish commander on the
island obviously had not heard of the outbreak of the
war, for on the previous day when Capt. Glass fired
on the island a message was sent to the Charleston
with an apology for not having returned the salute—
there was no ammunition on the island.
June 24 At the Battle of Las Guasimas, U.S. troops
won the first major land battle of the war with Spain.
The division of cavalry volunteers led by the aggressive Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler, with Col. Leonard
The National Institute of Arts and Letters was eshib
lished by the American Social Science Association "for
the furtherance of literature and the fine arts in th,
United States."
The Watch and Ward Society of Boston brought an
unsuccessful court action against booksellers hano'" ^
Gabrielle D'Annunzio's
novel // Trionfo delta M<>
(1894), published in the U.S. as The Triumph of Death
1
rl1
,. . nuild'
The Bayard Building (later renamed Condici
ing), designed by Chicago architects Dankmar > ^
and Louis H. Sullivan, was built in New York Li ^
low-relief work in terra cotta was much favore
Louis Sullivan.
i
�1898
PRES. WILLIAM MCKINLEY
381
Business and Industry; Science;
education; Philosophy and Religion
III
Alaska, was founded as the result of a gold
j the Seward Peninsula, for which it was the
Nome was named for a misspelling of a nearby
port, a map. The cape was referred to as "no name."
cape
0
o r
s t r l
IV
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
The U.S. Lawn Tennis Association singles championships were won by Juliette P. Atkinson in the women's
division and Malcolm D. Whitman in the men's division.
0 1 1
Apr. 19 The second Boston Marathon was won by
Ronald J. McDonald of Cambridge, Mass., with a time
of 2 hrs., 42 min.
The need for a canal across Panama was made clear
l, the 67 days (Mar. 19 to May 24) it took for the U.S.
battleship Oregon, needed in the Gulf of Mexico during
the Spanish-American War, to steam from San Franco. Calif, to Key West, Fla.
v
rb
May 4 The 24th annual Kentucky Derby was won by
Plaudit, with a time of 2:09. The jockey was Willie
Simms.
u n e
1 The Erdman Arbitration Act, sponsored by
P Jacob Erdman, Democrat of Pennsylvania, was
I'^ed. It authorized governmental mediation
'" tween interstate carriers and their employees. It
ade 'nterstate carriers to discriminate against or
1
May 26 The 32nd annual Belmont Stakes was won by
Bowling Brook, with a time of 2:32. The jockey was F.
Littlefield.
�1898 PRES. WILLIAM MCKINLEY
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
Wood now a regimental commander and Col. Theodore Roosevelt leading the Rough Riders, performed
well.
July 1-2 El Caney and San Juan Heights, Spanish outposts to Santiago de Cuba, were stormed and taken
over stubborn resistance by U.S. troops. There were
heavy casualties on both sides. The Rough Riders participated in the attack.
July 3 The Spanish fleet at Cuba, under Adm. Pascual
Cervera y Topete, was destroyed by U.S. ships in an
attempt to break out of Santiago. The Spanish lost 323
dead, 151 wounded. The U.S. lost one man. The war
was virtually over.
July 8 Isla Grande, in Subic Bay near Manila, was
occupied by forces under Adm. George Dewey. The
German gunboat Irene, which had attempted to hamper American operations, was forced to withdraw.
July 17 Santiago de Cuba was surrendered along with
24,000 Spanish troops bv Gen. Jose Toral to U.S. Gen.
William R. Shafter.
July 25 Puerto Rico was invaded by U.S. forces led by
Maj. Gen. Nelson D. Miles. The landing was made at
Guanica, on the southern coast. Resistance was minimal.
July 28 Ponce, Puerto Rico's second largest city, surrendered to Gen. Miles.
July 31 A Spanish assault at Malate, near Manila, was
repulsed by U.S. forces under Gen. Francis V. Greene.
U.S. casualties were 10 dead, 33 wounded.
Aug. 1 Casualties from disease were exceedingly high
during the conflict in Cuba. At this time there were
some 4200 sick U.S. personnel in Cuba, most suffering
from yellow fever or typhoid. Fewer than 400 troops
were killed in battle or died of wounds in Cuba. Fully
90% of U.S. casualties were caused by disease.
Aug. 7 The Rough Riders left Cuba, along with other
units, for Montauk Point, Long Island, to escape epidemics in Cuba.
Aug. 9 At Coamo, Puerto Rico. U.S. forces under Brig.
Gen. Oswald H. Ernst defeated a Spanish force.
Aug. 12 Hostilities between Spain and the U.S. were
halted by a protocol in which Spain agreed to give
Cuba its independence and to cede Puerto Rico and
Guam to the U.S. Spain agreed to negotiate the status
of the Philippines in a postwar conference.
Sept. 9 U.S. peace commissioners were appointed,
headed by Sec. of State William R. Day. They sailed
for Paris, France, on Sept. 17.
Nov. 8 In congressional elections the Republicans
continued to gain strength in the Senate and lose
strength in the House, taking a 53-26 lead in the Senate, with eight seats going to minor parties, and holding a majority of 185-163 in the House, with nine
seats held by minor parties. In New York State, Theodore Roosevelt was elected governor on the
382
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
n Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
Nov. 7 Mme. Ernestine Schumann-Heink made her
first U.S. appearance in Lohengrin at Chicago. Her
New York City debut was at the Metropolitan Opem
House in the same opera on Jan. 9, 1899.
�r
1898
PRES. WILLIAM MCKINLEY
3S3^
"""l^siness and Industry; Science;
cation; Philosophy and Religion
^
IV
P^!^^
Mist union laborers. But on Jan. 27, 1908, the
- -eine Court held the provision against discrimina^ unconstitutional according to the Fifth Amend"'^ it On July 15, 1914, Congress replaced the Erd'"'n ^ct by the Newlands Act, which set up a
Mediation board.
,C
S p 0 r t S
S o c
a l
, s s u e s
a
n
d
'
'
Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
June 11 The 23rd annual Preakness Stakes was won
by Sly Fox, w ith a time of l:49 /4. The jockey was Willie Simms.
3
June 18 The U.S. Open golf tournament was won bv
Fred Herd.
Oct. 12 A strikers' riot at V'irden, 111., resulted in 13
persons killed and 25 wounded. The strike broke out
when employers attempted to replace striking members of the United Mine Workers with nonunion.
black miners.
Fall The National League baseball championship was
won by Boston, with a record of 102 wins, 47 losses.
�THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
A EIA FCS
M RC N A T
ADD TS
N AE
GORTON CARRUTH
4Am UGifr
TENTH EDITION
HarperCollinsPw^/w^ers
�How to Use
The Encyclopedia of
American Facts & Dates
The encyclopedia presents in one volume a vast number of the most
interesting events from America's past arranged in both concurrent and
chronological order. To make the encyclopedia even more useful, it has
detailed index for instant and easy consulting.
a
The subject matter is divided into four fields of interest arranged
on every pair of facing pages in four vertical columns. Each column
continues on the following pair of facing pages. The subjects listed at the
tops of the columns are representative. Within the four columns you will
find entries on the following topics:
I
II
III
IV
Colonization
Disasters
Discovery, Exploration, Settlement
Domestic Affairs
Foreign Affairs
Immigration
Indian Affairs
Laws
Military Affairs
Politics and
Government
SlaveryStatehood
Suffrage
Tariffs
Temperance
Trade Agreements
Treaties
Vital Statistics
Wars and Battles
Westward Expansion
Women
Architecture
Art
Ballet
Books and Publishing
Censorship
Drama
Agriculture
Business
Colleges and
Universities
Communications
Economics
Education
Finance
Highways and
Roads
Industry
Inventions
Labor
Medicine
Philosophy
Religion
Scholarship
Science
Technology
Transportation
Crime
Dress
Expositions
Fashions
Folklore
Foods
Furniture
Games
Holidays
Manners
Sayings
Social Issues
Sports
Jazz
Monuments
Movies
Music
Painting
Periodicals
Popular Entertainment
Radio
Sculpture
Songs
Television
Theater
�1790-1794 - 1795-1799
PRES. GEORGE WASHINGTON, JOHN ADAMS
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
114
II
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
1794 Aug. 20 A major Indian defeat in the Northwest
Territory occurred when Gen. Anthony Wayne
routed 2000 Indians, killing and wounding many, on
the Miami R. in Ohio. The victory virtually ended a
war that had started in 1790, and secured the region
for settlement.
1794 Nov. 19 The Jay Treaty was concluded between
Great Britain and the U.S. It was widely denounced
in America because it continued to allow the British
the right to search U.S. ships and impress American
seamen on the grounds that they were actually of
British birth and citizenship.
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
resented religious as well as political tyranny. On Dec.
27, 1793, after completing the first part of the book
Paine was thrown into prison for his opposition to the
Reign of Terror then raging in revolutionary France.
He completed the rest of his book under the shadow
of the guillotine, and it was published on his release
in 1795.
1794 Feb. 17 The New Theatre on Chestnut St. i
Philadelphia opened with a performance of Samuel
Arnold's opera The Castle o f Andalusia. The theater's
opening had been long delayed by a yellow fever epidemic that swept through Philadelphia in 1793.
n
1795-1799
What came to be known as the XYZ Affair marked a
new low in Franco-American relations at the end of the
eighteenth century. A three-man commission, consisting of Elbridge Gerry, John Marshall, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, was sent to France in 1797 by Pres.
John Adams to negotiate a treaty of commerce and
amity. The French foreign minister, Charles Maurice de
Talleyrand, refused to deal with them directly and
instead on Oct. 18 sent three agents who later were designated X,Y, and Z in the reports of the American delegation. The French agents suggested that the U.S. make
a loan to France and also offer a bribe of about $250,000
to Talleyrand. The Americans refused, with Pinckney
replying, "No, no, not a sixpence." On Apr. 3, 1798,
Pres. Adams submitted the XYZ correspondence to
Congress, and the disclosure aroused great resentment
in the U.S. against France.
1795 The Yazoo land fraud, one of the earliest and
most spectacular incidents of fraud in American history, rocked Georgia. The Yazoo lands were located
in what is now Mississippi and Alabama, and were
owned by Georgia. The Georgia legislature granted
35,000,000 acres of this land for settlement to four
companies at a price of $500,000. It then was discovered that every legislator but one had an interest in
the grants when the measure was passed. Although
the contract was repealed by a new legislature
elected in 1796 and led by Jamesjackson, who had left
the U.S. Senate to run for the state legislature and
reclaim the lands, the original grants could not be
overturned in the courts. A unanimous Supreme
Court decision delivered by Chief Justice John Marshall in the case of Fletcher v. Peck (1810) upheld the
grant and declared that the Georgia legislature had
acted unconstitutionally in nullifying the contract.
That year, the U.S. Congress passed a bill appropriating up to $8,000,000 to settle the original Yazoo
claims, which Georgia had refused to honor.
After American independence was won, more and
more periodicals began to be published, with over 70
appearing before 1800. Most of them did not last long.
Among the periodicals were Columbian Magazine
(1786-1792), Massachusetts Magazine (1786-1796),
New York Magazine (1790-1797), and Monthly Magazine and American Review. The last one was established
in New York in April of 1799 by Charles Brockden
Brown, the nation's first professional novelist. In 1801 it
became a quarterly under the title American Review
and Literary Journal; it published until the end of 1802.
Brown also edited the Literary Magazine and A merican
Register from its founding in Philadelphia in 1803 until
1807, when it too failed. Most magazines of the time carried a mix of educational, literary, and scientific material.
1795 An English Grammar by Lindley Murray, a
Pennsylvania native of Scottish descent who immigrated to England, was published. The best known of!
Murray's works, this book was accepted for four generations as the standard authority on English grammar. Murray also compiled a popular English Reader
(1779).
1795 The Massachusetts State House, one of the best
post-Revolutionary public buildings, was built in Boston from designs by Charles Bulfinch.
1795 May 22 The first American-born black character •
in American theater was Sambo in The Triumphs of \
Love, or Happy Reconciliation by John Murdock. The
play also included the first Quaker characters.
1796 Joseph Jefferson, the English actor, made hisi
first New York City appearance with the American j
Company. He was the first of a long line of celebrated|
actors of the nineteenth century.
1796 Gilbert Stuart completed his portrait George\
Washington, probably the most famous portrait of thel
�r
1790-1794 - 1795-1799
Business and Industry; Science;
IV
Education; Philosophy and Religion
L •)() The University of Tennessee was first
tered as Blount College in Knoxville, Tenn.
^"bHshed under Presbyterian auspices, Blount Col'' | ! f e r r e d its first degrees in 1806, the same year
f ,ciine a state university through a federal grant
vling for two state universities, one in the eastern
pl(i\ Hlinu
.i
,i _
•
.i
.
of the state andi the other in the western _
part,
cirt
t College was chosen as the eastern member
1 in 1807, was renamed East Tennessee College.
T \ r une East Tennessee Universitv in 1840 and the
[••te'rsity of Tennessee in 1879.
1 7 9 4
,
PRES. GEORGE WASHINGTON, JOHN ADAMS
st:
on
l L
X
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
another as citizen, the form of address adopted by the
French. More evidence of American support for the
French was displayed on Nov. 21 at The Sign of the
Black Bear in Philadelphia, which advertised a performance of the guillotining of Louis XVI, who had
been executed in 1793. The climax was described as
the point at which "the head falls in a basket, and the
I ps, which are first red, turn blue." Supporters of
Thomas Jefferson and his party flocked to applaud this
revolutionary reenactment "performed to the life by
an invisible machine without any perceivable assistance."
1795-1799
Doth in the U.S. and abroad, the day of the general scits who took many fields of inquiry as their provj v was coming to an end. Professional, or at least
more specialized, scientists were taking over. An outmding example of the generalists who had contributed so much to eighteenth-century progress was Samuel Latham Mitchill. His accomplishments and interests
revealed the scope of his life's work. Mitchill established
the first medical journal, Medical Repository, in 1797;
u is professor of natural history at Columbia College
from 1798 to 1801; published the first good description
nf the geology of eastern New York State in 1798; was
professor of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in
New York City from 1807 to 1826; and served in the
New York State Assembly and the House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. In addition, he introduced into
\merican science the chemical nomenclature of
\ntoine Lavoisier, founder of modern chemistry, and
In 1814 was the foremost zoologist as a result of his work
• n the fish of New York.
,
lltlS
lK
1795 The first Kentucky library was founded at Lexington. It reflected the city's cultural ascendancy in
the early frontier region.
1
795 An early influence in the development of Ameri< MII Utopianism was Constantin Frangois de Chasseboeuf, Comte de Volney. He visited the U.S., where
his work The Ruins; or. A Survey o f the Revolution o f
l.>ii)>ires (1791) had been favorably received and
•''•mslated by Thomas Jefferson and Joel Barlow. The
' ' " " i v was a study of the philosophy of history, and the
'"hivutcd deism of the author greatly appealed to
American intellectuals. Unfortunately, Volney's
•"rival was followed closely by the crisis with France.
Americans—at least those who could afford to—dined
well and heartily on holiday occasions, as the menus of
some presidential Christmas dinners indicated. A
Christmas menu from Mount Vernon showed that
George and Martha Washington served 34 different
dishes and wines on one holiday, beginning with onion
soup and ending with port and Madeira. Five different
meat dishes were available. In the White House John
and Abigail Adams called one of their holiday repasts "A
Most Sinful Feast." Among the 29 dishes was "Skillet
Cranberries for a Slack Oven."
1796-1799 Louis Philippe, who in 1830 would be proclaimed "king of the French" by the deposed King
Charles X of France, was living in a one-room flat over
a bar in Philadelphia, Pa. He managed, however, to
travel in the best circles. He met one of the two
daughters of William Bingham, a banker and U.S. senator from Pennsylvania, and husband of Washington's
most colorful and celebrated hostess, Anne Willing
Bingham. Bingham had founded the Bank of North
America as well as the city of Binghamton, N.Y. Louis
Philippe proposed marriage to the younger Miss
Bingham, but the senator refused permission on the
ground that she was not good enough for Louis if
Louis were to become king, and too good for him if
he were not. Louis Philippe left Philadelphia in 1800
and in 1830 became "citizen king" of France. As for
Bingham's daughters, one married the Comte de Tilly
and the other married Alexander Baring, Baron Ashburton, an English financier and banker.
1796 A social trend away from capital punishment was
reflected in reforms in the criminal code of Virginia,
which reduced the number of crimes for which
capital punishment was decreed.
�1795-1799
PRES. GEORGE WASHINGTON, JOHN ADAMS
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
1795 An Indian factory system was established by the
federal government to assist Indians in their dealing
with white traders. Under the supervision of the factors, agents who supplied money on the basis of outstanding business accounts, the system was designed
to get fair prices for the products of Indians.
1795-1797 The fourth Congress consisted of 32 senators of whom 19 were Federalists and 13 DemocraticRepublicans. In the House 54 were Federalists and 52
Democratic-Republicans.
1795 Jan. 29 The Naturalization Act was passed. It
required a residence period of five years and renunciation of allegiances and titles of nobility as prerequisites to citizenship.
1795 Nov. 2 James K. Polk, 11th president of the
United States, was born in Pineville, N.C.
1796 May 19 A game protection law was passed by
Congress to restrict encroachment by whites on
Indian hunting grounds. The act provided fines or
imprisonment as penalties for hunting game in Indian
territory.
1796 June 1 Tennessee became the 16th state of the
Union.
1796 Sept. 17 What has come to be known as Washington's Farewell Address was delivered by Pres.
Washington before Congress. One of the outstanding
American political documents, the address warned
against America's involvement in foreign disputes
and thus paved the way for the isolationist policy of
the nineteenth century.
1796 Dec. John Adams was elected president of the
United States. Adams was the last Federalist candidate to gain the presidency. The electoral vote was
Adams,
71; Thomas
Jefferson,
DemocraticRepublican of Virginia, 68; Aaron Burr, DemocraticRepublican of New York, 30; and Thomas Pinckney,
Federalist of South Carolina, 59. Jefferson, the candidate with the second highest electoral vote, became
vice president.
1797-1799 In the f i f t h Congress 20 senators were Federalists and 12 Democratic-Republicans; in the House
the division was 58 and 48.
1797 Mar. 4 John Adams was inaugurated president
of the United States. The second president, he served
one term.
1797 May 15 The first special session of Congress was
called by Pres. Adams to debate a crisis in FrenchAmerican relations. The American envoy to France,
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, had left France after
being insulted by the French foreign minister. The
situation deteriorated rapidly and caused growing
concern in the U.S.
1798 A severe yellow fever epidemic in New York
116
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
n Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
first president. It also came to be known as the Athenaeum head. Stuart made numerous tries before this
successful result. Nothing but the head of Washington
can be seen, his character being derived from his
facial features alone. This likeness is the accepted one
and has become familiar to millions. The portrait was
placed in the Boston Athenaeum, and later on permanent loan to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
1796 The Hasty Pudding by Joel Barlow was published. Barlow wrote the poem, a mock epic singing
the virtues of the American dish, cornmeal mush, in
France in 1793. It became his most popular work.
1796 The first complete American edition of William
Shakespeare's Plays was published.
1796 The Harrison Gray Otis House was built in Boston. Its design reflected the influence of the so-called
Adam style popular in England, named after Robert
and James Adam, Scottish architects. The Otis House
later became headquarters of The Society for the
Preservation of New England Antiquities.
1796 An early American opera, The Archers, or the
Mountaineers o f Switzerland, was staged in New York
City. An adaptation of Friedrich von Schiller's William Tell, it was composed by William Dunlap and
Benjamin Carr.
1797 Thomas Paine's Agrarian Justice was published
while the author was living in France. It put forward '
a belief in a rational basis for the perfectability of]
social institutions. This tenet was shared by Paine with i
other leaders of the eighteenth-century
Enlightenment. The full title of Paine's work was Agrarian Jus- j
ttce opposed to Agrarian Law and to Agrarian'
Monopoly; being a Plan for ameliorating the Condi-i
tion of Man by creating in every Nation a Natiomll
Fund, etc.
1797 Construction of the main church began at thej
mission San Juan Capistrano, the most ambitious of)
colonial buildings in California. Designed by Isidore j
Aguilar, a stonemason from Mexico, it had a 120-ft. j
bell tower and many carved ornaments. It was completed in 1806 but was destroyed in an earthquake on j
Dec. 8, 1812. The ruins are still a favorite tourist j
attraction.
1797 Feb. 17 The play Bunker H i l l by John Dalyl
Burk provided a dramatic spectacle in its last act, inj
which a realistic reenactment of the assault was|
staged. The play was often revived in Fourth of July|
celebrations.
1798 The poem "Hail, Columbia" by Joseph Hopkin-|
son was published. It stirred Americans' patriotic ferjj
vor at a time when war with France appeare
imminent.
�r
1795-1799
11^
Business and Industry; Science;
^
Education; Philosophy and Religion
| [ was charged with spying and forced to leave for
home the next year.
e
7
rtc Feb. 25 Union College was chartered at Sche'ctadv, N Y., under Presbyterian auspices. Its first
degrees were awarded in 1800.
•|796 The first experiments with gas illumination were
conducted in Philadelphia, Pa.
1796 The first important suspension bridge in the U.S.
was built between Uniontown and Greensborough,
Pa., over Jacob's Creek. The bridge, no longer standing, was based on a principle of suspension developed
mainly by James Finley of Fayette County, Pa.
1796-1797 John Fitch made a final effort to raise
financial backing for his steamboat experiments. In
\evv York City, on Collect Pond, where the Tombs
stood on Centre Street, he sailed a steamboat driven
bv a screw propeller. No one was interested. Fitch
committed suicide in Bardstown, Ky., on July 2, 1798.
1797 The first instruction booklet in experimental
chemistry in America was published by Dr. James
Woodhouse in Philadelphia, Pa.
1797 The first glassworks in what was then the American midwest was established in Pittsburgh, Pa., by the
firm of O'Hara and Craig.
1797 The first U.S. clock patent was awarded to Eli
Terry for his newly devised method of employing
wooden works in his clocks. Terry's clocks were sold
rather cheaply—$18 to $70—and sales were brisk.
Terry became the first manufacturer to use water
power to cut parts.
1797 June 26 The first U.S. plow patent was issued to
Charles Newbold of New Jersey. After expending his
entire fortune in developing a practical plow of cast
iron. Newbold was unable to sell it to farmers because
"f their fear of harmful effects of iron on soil. Thomas
JeHerson had made the first studies of plows in America and designed a moldboard plow according to the
distinctive requirements of American soil, but he
never applied for a patent.
PRES. GEORGE WASHINGTON, JOHN ADAMS
IV
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
1796 The popularity of billiards in the South was
noted by Francis Baily, the English astronomer, who
began a two-year, 20()0-mile tour of the U.S. this year.
Baily observed that there were a dozen billiard tables
in Norfolk, Va., alone. His narrative, Journal of a Tour
in Unsettled Parts o f North America in 1796 and
1797. was published in 1856.
1796 Travel between the cities of America frequently
presented challenges and dangers to tradesmen and
vacationers. Harried travelers on the PhiladelphiaBaltimore roads complained of chasms six to ten feet
deep along the way. They were lucky when their
vehicles did not overturn. It sometimes took a stagecoach five days to make a trip.
1797 Equality of men and women in the spheres of
culture, economics, politics, and society was propounded by Charles Brockden Brown in Alctiin, a
novel holding that men and women had more in common than in dispute.
1797 A new water supply for Philadelphia, Pa., drawing from the Schuylkill R., went into operation. There
were three underground tunnels for distributing
water in the city, and these were supplied from a
tower in the center of the city. This was the first
attempt in the U.S. to construct a centralized water
distribution system.
1798 The breeding of horses in the U.S. began in earnest. This year Diomed, the great English champion
that had won the Epsom Derby in 1780, was brought
to the U.S. by Col. John Hoomes of Virginia. Diomed
sired many famous American horses, including
Eclipse and Lexington.
1798 The first model train was said to have been built
by John Fitch, who turned to the construction of miniature steam-powered vehicles after his dismal failure
as a steamboat salesman. The model he built has been
described as the first free-moving railway steam
engine in miniature.
1798 June 18 "Millions for defense, but not one cent
for tribute" entered American political history at a
banquet at O'Eller's Tavern in Philadelphia, Pa., in
honor of John Marshall, one of the three presidential
�1795-1799
PRES. GEORGE WASHINGTON, JOHN ADAMS
Exploration and Settlement; Wars;
Government; Civil Rights; Statistics
Ae
f
City caused 2086 deaths out of a total population of
50,000.
1798 Daniel Boone received a grant of 850 acres of
land from the Spanish government in the Femme
Osage district of Louisiana Territory.
1798 The first secretary of the Navy was appointed by
Pres. Adams. He was Benjamin Stoddert, and he
found himself with a weak navy in a time of trouble
with F'rance. Within two years he acquired 50 ships
and planned a marine corps, naval hospital, and dock
yards.
1798 Jan. 8 The Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution was adopted. It stipulated that federal courts
shall not have jurisdiction over litigation between
individuals from one state against individuals from
another state.
1798 June 18 The first of four acts known collectively as the Alien and Sedition Acts, amending the
Naturalization Act of 1795, was adopted. The act
required of prospective citizens a residence period of
14 years and a declaration of intention for five years.
1798 June 25 The Alien Act, second of the Alien and
Sedition Acts, was passed, granting the president
power for two years to deport any alien he deemed
dangerous to the country's safety.
1798 July 6 The Alien Enemies Act, third of the
Alien and Sedition Acts, was passed. It provided for
the apprehension and deportation of male aliens who
were subjects or citizens of a hostile country.
1798 July 7 The first case of outright abrogation of a
treaty by the U.S. occurred when Congress pronounced the U.S. "freed and exonerated from the
stipulations" of the treaties of 1778 with France.
1798 July 14 The Sedition Act, fourth and last of the
Alien and Sedition Acts, was passed. It provided for
arrest and imprisonment of any person who
attempted to impede the lawful processes of government, foment insurrection, or write, publish, or utter
any false or malicious statement about the president,
Congress, or government of the U.S. The Alien and
Sedition Acts reflected the panic of the Federalist
Party in the face of the XYZ Affair, the general conflict with France, and the growing strength of the
Democratic-Republican Party. Intended to curb
domestic opposition, the acts caused confusion and
injustice and brought the Federalist Party ultimately
into contempt, political defeat, and dissolution.
1799 Dec. 14 George Washington died at 67. He was
buried on his estate in Mount Vernon, Va.
II
Publishing; Arts and Music; Popular
Entertainment; Architecture; Theater
1798 The novel Wieland by Charles Brockden Brown
considered America's first professional writer, was
published. This Gothic romance reflected the influ.
ence of European literature yet dealt with American
subjects and locales. It was followed by Arthur Mervyn, Ormond. and Edgar Huntly, three novels published in 1799. Brown incorporated into his novels
such elements as superstition, ventriloquism, diabolical heroes, sleepwalking, and Indian massacres.
1798 Apr. Female Patriotism, or the Death of Joan
d'Arc, a remarkable dramatic tour-de-force by John
Daly Burk, was produced at the Park Theater in New
York City. Burk was able to instill Elizabethan vigor
in his lines. The spirit of liberty suffuses the entire
play.
1798 Dec. 10 The play The Stranger by William Dunlap, an adaptation of Menschenhass and Reue by the
German writer August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue, opened in New York City. Its success reflected
a great vogue for adaptations of Kotzebue's works,
among which were Lovers' Vows (1799), Count Benyowski (1799), False Shame (1799), Force o f Calumny
(1800), Count o f Burgundy (1800), and Virgin of the
Sun (1800).
1799 The Baltimore American, the first newspaper
outside Washington, D . C , to give verbatim reports of
Congressional debates, began publication. The paper
published for 130 years.
1799 Gracie Mansion in New York City, one of the few
remaining examples of the country mansions that
were built in upper Manhattan during the eighteenth
century, was constructed in what is now Carl Schurz
Park. It was acquired as the official residence for may
ors of New York City in 1942.
1799 St. Mark's in-the-Bouwerie, an example of New
York City's best small church architecture, was buill
on the site of the former farm of Gov. Peter Stuyvesant.
1799 The Bank of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia wa!
built from plans by Benjamin H. Latrobe, one of th<
leaders of the Greek Revival movement in America
In this building he used an Ionic hexastyle portico tha
presaged the introduction of heavy, monumenta
public buildings.
�1795-1799
119
g i n e s s and Industry; Science;
Education; Philosophy and Religion
III
The first professioruil nursing instruction in the
•"\ ^„ gjven by Dr. Valentine Seaman, who lec^ d o' anatomy, physiology, obstetrics, and pediatSeaman later published an outline of these lec^nrobablv the first attempt in the U.S. at
; |ishing a nursing text.
IS
1
1
t l i r e
r u S
)ub
7Qfl The revolutionary concept of manufacturing
• .rchangeable parts was incorporated by Eli Whit'"-v in production of firearms for the U.S. governinent.
PRES. GEORGE WASHINGTON, JOHN ADAMS
IV
Sports; Social Issues and Crime;
Folkways; Fashion; Holidays
envoys to French Foreign Minister Charles Maurice
de Talleyrand-Perigord. Honored by the Federalists
for refusing a bribe by one of Talleyrand's agents,
Marshall listened to 16 toasts in honor of his part in the
XYZ Affair. The 13th toast, proposed by Rep. Robert
Goodloe Harper, Federalist of South Carolina, contained the well-known phrase. Although the statement was correctly attributed to Harper in Philadelphia's American Daily Advertiser on June 20, the
expression came to be identified with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, another of the American envoys to
whom the bribe request had been directed. Pinckney,
shortly before his death, denied ever having made the
statement, but because the expression seemed more
apt as a diplomatic reply than as a toast, the legend
persisted that Pinckney had spoken these words to
the French agent.
1798 The first American ship built on Lake Ontario,
the3('-ton vessel Jemima, was constructed just outside
of Rochester, N.Y.
1798 June An example of active religious pacifism
was seen in the expedition of George Logan. Worried
about the imminence of war with France, Logan
sailed on a peace ship to do what he could as a private
citizen to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. Logan,
an erstwhile doctor, was an active Pennsylvania politician, friend of Thomas Jefferson, and a lifelong
Quaker. His mission to France was an expression of his
religious pacifism. He was further influenced by the
sympathy of the Democratic-Republican Party, of
which he had become a member, for France. Despite
personal threats from Federalists, he equipped himself for the mission and set sail. With assistance from
the Marquis de Lafayette, himself in exile in Germany, he got into France and presented his pleas to
the French minister after U.S. relations with France
had been severed and the last representative had left.
Logan was credited with having influenced the
course of peace, but he was strongly censured at home
lor his action, which brought about passage of the so• alled Logan Act (1798). The legislation prohibited
private citizens from engaging in diplomatic
< xchanges unless expressly authorized to do so.
17
98 Dec. 14 A patent for a screw threading machine
"•<s awarded to David Wilkinson of Rhode Island. In
\"K 1848, Congress awarded Wilkinson $10,000 for
invention.
1,IS
1799 The first recorded use of the word scab in labormanagement conflicts occurred during a shoemakers'
strike in Philadelphia, Pa. The term applied to workers hired at establishments during a strike. At the
same time the term paid walking delegate was born.
It was the duty of the paid walking delegate to inspect
struck establishments for the presence of scabs and to
take necessary measures.
1799 Academic precocity, frequent throughout early
American history, was illustrated by the graduation
this year of a boy of 14 from Rhode Island College.
Infants of three years of age were sometimes taught
to read Latin as soon as English. Timothy Dwight was
able to read the Bible at the age of four.
1799 Dec. 26 "First in war, first in peace, first in the
hearts of his countrymen," forever associated with
George Washington, was first said as part of Henry
Lee's funeral oration before Congress, after Washington's death on Dec. 14. Lee, known as "Light Horse
Harry" Lee, had served under Washington in the
Revolution and become his close friend. He was the
father of Robert E. Lee. On the same day as Lee's
eulogy, the House of Representatives passed a resolution incorporating Lee's words almost verbatim:
"First in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his fellow citizens."
�Str^ Jle»r jjtoxk Sim^,
"Mtha
ThaTs Fit to Prinf'
VOL. xcvn .N* JM*.
L T CT D
AE IY M
NEW Y O U . lATUmDAY. MAY U. 1M,
ZIONISTS PROCLAIM NEW STATE OF ISRAEL;
TRUMAN RECOGNIZES IT AND HOPES FOR PEACE
TEL AVIV IS BOMBED, EGYPT ORDERS INVASION
NV MS PAHeaviest Trading in 8 Years A ATC ON II. & D E PKY
AY
LN
R TAK P S
I
E
VS C L
CHTPH Marks Stock Market Spurt
OSOO
Planes C u e Fires atPresident Acknowledges
as
O m i VS L
F
EES
S
Port—Defense
de Facto Authority of
AT HELM OP THE JEWISH STATE
3JMOJOOO ShmChant'
Hand.
of BailUJ, EnthmaMm
In
S*ctrriti*M I to 7 Painti
to k g m H>nin« Wort on
BanMiip.DntrafcrTypa
a.
T h . tactic * r * 0< tb« N l M U U
I C I io T pMflta to tfe<
p n n i M U a t Al an uma 1* tk* 1Bu m i 1*4 tha iBdutrtkta »md m i l
• d r u M d wltk mck 4 unity •<
WAHDNOTON. M t r 14—
.uueu*
fl|«tuc ei«n
irrw u PAM
*
HEtP O U. N. A K D
F
SE
Cairo Vanguard Takes Soviet Gesture to N w
e
Colony—Trans-Jordan Nation Anticipated—
Reports a Movement Others D e to Act
u
N w Regime Holds Out
e
HandtoArabs-U.S.
Gesture Acclaimed
T K I . AVIV. PdaatlM. I k l u r ^ r
Hmr IS—Air ratten homkod IhU
UM
All-JrwUtt city at atout 4»wn Iobull m v k r t to U U M wbo tet by
ta T.
U M ( t a r t j . or • v « t M « i . C ^ l T
P i n t r*porU w l d t h a n w«r<
tfca 4*r. ul«fT«ma w m M I
•onia caauAltiM' rMW Lb* powt
M n r m l «dTiaorr M T V I C M to lb*lr mtf l i f h t jUUcat.
cltenu u r f l n f U M purehAM • M [Calr* raportari thAt E f f T P ^ "
armad forcaa had b M e r t a n d t *
antf
Palaadaa. Arab arralaa
UM hraHii
• M f M i far t k u p k f
rtHk. PubUc p u u c i p ^ i o a w<dwJT
M l u t ^ aad buytnc o r i w p n w H
floor t n d m U U M utauat. TUa
o m l l t k B t U U d for f o r t y - f l * .
I by
I I 01 A H Saturtar t * " U b m U
Uta Hair LAnd f M Uoftlan.*
w d a Trana-Jordaii nnununlqu*
n p o r M by Tha Usitad Pnaa
f i w n Ammi
Tal A n *
Truman Sees His Election;
Calls GOP 'Obstructionist'
Vkat UM N a r r wkntad S#rT»t v r faiUiTM w r t i r t , waa ConmtMo
to 4vart
M UM.m.l
l
-Tha Unltad t t a t M ncofnlaaa
M p»OTM«Ba] lOvafiiiiMat ai
da facto authorily of tha M * I
o
Oovtmor Acts After 200 Ratd ur Tnimaa a<c ^ IM rupub
ludahy Mcwpcrt Plant. Attack ^ " ^ ' ^ ;
^ ^^ "
60 Workert ami Abduct 25 ! wa. -it b a t*™ ui*ir habit air
a
T b a y hav. te«n abainKtloniau
•hanffa thai thMr fortaa could aoi Th»y «ptnt moat of thair l i n t
whila I w u m tha » m a l a — a n d I
or taft ;
Tha Oaramor did not p m
martial l a « but Mid U M traopa • t r u c t m i profrtaalva MglaUtMn
thai waa for tha waffara ef tha
would taha thalr ardtra tram
and OiTOWing bnchi
•wtf aiithontM^
Tha Oov*maf • aftloa (oQowrt
aart—a outbrvah at tba Cudaby
at ia Nawpon A a r t l y
mtdBifhl la wbii
bat rvar M l in U M WUla M M
Mr Tnunan W H taUmiptaa
World News Summarized
SATUBDAT. M A T IS, I U $
•aTvral boun a f t i r tha Rata
or laraal. Uia t i n t Habrtw naIIOB m 1.000 yaara. tMd baM
PTa*da. in Ui> f l n t tdttonal
proclaimad la a Ziontal daclaracotnmant on tha racanl aafbanfa
T.I
Waahmfton -and MoaAVIT, [ I I ] . rraaldint Truman
accuaad tha United ttataa
annsunead Uiat tha
Umtad
of doubla-daalmi I * 1.1
ttataa naafniaad th« - p m i ^
„
„
awtnal to»»mm«nl erf braal aa
walaoma
to
PnncM
-tha dt facte authomy ot tha
i ^ , ^
tMha et EdU>Whlte tarfb
thay arrtva* far* W t (1:W J
CanfTwm racalvad a raquatf
, w i m uaited N a U e n from Uu Navy far authanty U
afforta W brtnf ahaut paaoa la
m p h a a u la 1
PalaMiaa
[ 1 : 3 ] Tba Brltlah
.tracuo
t t ricbtlnc crart U
Ulfh
CMnmlaatena*
dapartad fuldad-.
11 l . )
PtwUant Tnunaa pndletad
endaar at Haifa aa • r t t a l n ' i mla
• would ba ra-alacUd naal
tha Holy Land formaiiy
itMT. [1 M ]
Willi MiiTa
HatMal
Ouard
ruabad ta a m t h I t .
Tha ^ a c u l —mem t t tba
Paol aad Nawpart after M0 paraaaa had mldad tha Cudahy
pachiac plaat at X r w p o n .
wh«ro a Mitha ta in r*«ffna«attachUff about A t y w w h m
c
lauad.
"and
thay
havan'l
cbancad a ML Tkay wara f m u * \
tertal Bacunly. Thay wara tcalaat
TV A. Thay wara agaUMt wafaa
Prince** Elizabeth, in Pari* Talk,
Ask* Common Effort of 2 Nation*
W r
MU*aa w d . "ba*. p ^ i
Z** • 'Ml-waataf float la an BB-
^3
W A m H O T O N . M>r > « - P
daat TramAA m m t m i mn^
niftat n e o f f U t M i br tka UnlUd
• U l M of Iba M W Jaartafa SUta d
lanaL Tba PraiMmt acud la
aUaUr upn* M a f f i n f o m a d Uwi
I n i f f t t but no nraaa
wara aaundad duna* tba raid. C m l
(uarda wara aWrtad and f l f U a n t»
luted tha U r t *t tba r n a t e l '
twaatjr ahipa la tba poet araa
AteBaaL
WASHINGTON. Mar ' «
it T m m A n u M r t a d taalctai
Cmipted with U M aAnaaneamwi
Utat i k o n would ba a D v n o a m t la t b « White Houao A i r l f l f
BCTt f w y t » n mai thAt ha w w i M ba tba mAB. Ha mada tha Avi< uttla m o n than Iwalvo boun
tt P a M l n a . T h u wa* <
' f U t t m a n t to t t b » a n n | audi' aflar Jiwlah Madan pr
• Uiroocti • aaparala White
ce of 1.000 V O U B ( Dtmoerata tha «u«t«flti of a n*w Habraw
i • u t a n a n t umad by CharlM
•lata of laraal
t h n r aiaatinf hart.
ba 1*11 in tha *ieinity
T>ia Prtaidtnt't r p n c h wa.
taxr
-Tha M n af tha U m u d BUtaa
ri(ri(in(
ia obtain a irwca IB Palaaunt." tMa
H* ipok* n t a m p o - a m .
•aid. - w i l l in fM way ba laaaaaad
oualy. reaoninf
whunar ard
by tha prwclamaUOB of a J<
irony and uatii( roreaful ( t a l u m of ftation. cauauif "••
lUlt.
1
"Wa hop* that tha naw Jawtah
T I L AVIV. Saturday. Hay IB
U
Fi Soma tan bomb* wan •tat* will )0U with tha Sacurlty
r
u , l l
I
r
k
0
1
k
dreppad on Tal A n * by two air Council Tnteo QnnmuaMm u
rt daarrtbad M bomba'a and ac- doublad affona to annf an .1
f I f htlBf— whl«b
haa
ipamad by two (mall flffbUr*. U M
\J0Z* of taxuig a f«w pianhj
«i
throufbout U M Unltod NatlonaOta J»w waa hillad and t h n * w
<
tba old Damoeraiie
pitltoma
and
eonMdmUMi of T I J M U B O a prvtbuildlni
a platform
aod Uwa mj- n<MpitaaMd Jawiah A m y a i r t r a f t npal ah}Mll*a of thia Oo*ara
to Uw ahiaa a law mtnulat
ST PAUL. Hmn.. Hay I*—Na- Ulf. M r too
aflar tha •namy planat U l i M d
DCAJ Guard I r w p a wara ordand
I T * . I , J , ot PTtwidn, T^o
IPandlaff •tabtliaation af tha
'•r rooftopa at an t i t l m a t t d alt)
U BiNlb i t . Paul and N r w p o n .
Ma t *p«frk u *m r » 9 * T 1
Palaatlna itluation and indictda of MO faat.
a on opponta banka of U M
tlona Ihat tha I t a l a of In-aal
"What hava lha Rrpublicana
Bavaral f l n a could ba Man aartb
doaa In lha laat nftaao and a half
O r r m t m Lutkrr Ttn
day yaaraT" Mr. T T U I B M aahad. than
CaMteMd M r a t a 1, C
•aid'
^ r^r^HNESOTA'S GA "
UR
D
"OUTINiATSMEcr
n i u i i i ^ u i laur aa srw wnpeaa
Israel Immediately
B R E IS B E C ET U E AIM S R S E
O DR
RA HD C
R
T ESD
oa U a floor <rf tk* N*v T o r t l u c k
«»«THta)O.TOI CARRIER
i n Uu StrnMd Hi Pla (or
Biwrtrg tWO.OOCOOO Fund
S m W e as Quest
o e ep
for Stat«tiood E d
ns
—White Paper Dies
Waw
G Into Action
o
I E JW REM
H ES
o
w
m
)
T
0
1
mt a m c r a m AM
T B , AVTV. Palaatlna. Wtarday.
t U j i a - T h a Jawiah Kate, tha
'. te ba
U M Kate of Im—i. caoa
17. N. Votes for a Mediator;
Special Assembly Is Ended
pit
My TTIOMAa J. HAMILTON
A f t e r h c s r t a f both t h * SovWl Union and tha Arab t k l a f a t e a
danounca tha United SUtea f o r l i t auddco raeoffnlUon of tha n t *
JawUh atata in PalcttiBa. tha United Na tlona O a n a n l Aaarabty
daeldad laat night to m o i a Va-T
dtator to t h . Holy Land to do f l l ( U U I U P U 1 I I P A T C
Tha *ota waa 11 lo T. with atx.
U « i abatenuona and four datef atea
abaanl. and tha Ganaral Aaaambly.
whKli waa callad into cpaciaJ aaa.
•ion at n u h i n g Maadow cn Apnl
M
M
M
U M United >
bi « M < ( U M rat ba
oda af UMr t m b t a d I
J a w M paapla b « f a n
rati** and toat a aaw k
whan thay laarMd that
•at aatMoal poww bM
than lata Ua Mtanal
lanuiy
br
A MNA ED
S ADT NS
E
i« .t th« nquMt of UM Umtrt Bfitiih Commluioner Boards
aut»>d) r df.rp «hii.U|
Haifa-Jews
•ma fatlura of Uia Oanaral A*. I
•ambly *ithar 10 rapaal U M pani-l
non raaolutitm of laat NovamMrl
or ia provida mllitAry forca to aaop
te lha paawho w a n tenaa aad raady t w
M
br Arab
C
m
u
r
w
Take DOWFI Union Jack
HAIFA
Palfit.n
H t y 15—Bniain andad har man
datt ovtr tha Holy Land laat mid.
Araoa not ay any United Mallona mchl Lieut. Oan. f i r Alan Cun
niniham. lha laat BnlMh H l f h
. aailrd from Haifa
port, rmiahinf B n l u h maadaU
piidanca
Wadnaaday. after 11 had bocoma
r Alan • d a p ^ u r a from Palaaobvioua that U M Oanaral Aaaatnbly
would i v t aecapt U M a n p n a l t t i M * nchael port rauaad
United I t a u a plan for • itmporary racitamant among Uia Jawa
zontrol mo«t 0/ UM city.
tniauaahip.
Tha B n t u h f i r m a raw rachate
Howavar. U M CaiMral AMambiy
rafuaad io accapt a Unltad Stataa and oran-hhgriu apotlightad th*
cruiMr u it (Ktmad from UI*
plan for a tamporary truatet
harboi
Waaring th* uniform of a Bntlah Army gaMraJ. Sir Alan walhod
down • f < * »tapa of dock into
launch Uial look rum ta tba cruia
Euryalua
Upon l a t t l n g into tha launch. 1
mad and lookod aobarly up
roaa Uia docka Than itood aa
which waa to hav« b
honor f u a r t of U M K m r * Com.
lha admlBiaUatton af tha Truatea- paay of Oranadlw Ouarda aa«
Iteyal
itup Council. atU) «tend.
ta addiue*. U M Aaaambiy 4ad -
Tha dacLaraUon af lha a
by David Ban-Our
UM Hatlonal CooncU and tha f M
PTamiar of taaora tMaal. w u daU**nd during a alnpte M a a t o a
no-y at 4 P. U.. aad aaw Ma
itutUUd lata hla paopla. M
from without thara waa ite namMing of guna a ClaAbaeh la aOiar
dacianuwa of l a d r p w l n 1 (bat
1 WhJte Papar at 1M*. whkh
la lha proclamatfa
•tela tha Oovaramai
UM United Natima "te aMl« tte
Jawiab (wopte la tha b t f t t a r *
ite rtate u d te aasM I n a l tate
UM family of aaUaa*H M praclamatm addag:
"Wa ttffar paaea and aalty te aB
WaaU^awa i
Th. • U U M i t 1
r a t a 1. I
U. N. Bar* Jeru*alem Tru*tee*hip;
Vote Follow* Mandate Deadline
braaL"
Pteoa far tha carameny bad ba.
id with g n u memrr N O M b
�m
PUBLIC PAPERS OF T H E PRESIDENTS
OF T H E U N I T E D STATES
Harry S. Truman
Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and
Statements of the President
JANUARY
I TO D E C E M B E R
31,
I948
I948
UNITED
STATES
GOVERNMENT
WASHINGTON
:
PRINTING
I964
OFFICE
�[99]
May 14
Public Papers of the Presidents
This is a sound program, and should continue to be strongly supported.
Furthermore, the government has taken
steps to encourage export markets for a number of important commodities. Such actions
are being taken, as they should be, in cooperation with other countries. Primary
examples of this policy are the various trade
agreements which have been made under
the terms of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act and the International Wheat
Agreement now before the Senate for
ratification.
provement of living standards in rural
I have recommended measures to provii
better health services to farmers and fa
communities. I have recommended me:
ures to improve the housing standards
farm families. I have recommended that
the Government assist the States to furnish'!
adequate primary and secondary education
for all children—and this will have especially;
beneficial results in rural areas. Rural elefr
trification should go forward as rapidly as
feasible, to bring the benefits of electricity to
more farms.
We must continue these measures to assure strong normal markets for agricultural
commodities. At the same time the health
of our people requires us to consider other
methods to move products into consumption.
Our present school lunch program is an example of such a program, which is providing
better nutrition for millions of our school
children. In addition, I believe that we
should start now to develop a practical program to use agricultural surpluses to improve the diets of low-income families, and
have it ready on a stand-by basis in case of
need. We must never again allow our
people to go hungry while agricultural surpluses are going to waste.
All of these measures will aid our farm
families to maintain a standard of living befitting their essential position in our society.
They will be of special importance to the millions of small farmers whose incomes are below a reasonable standard, even in this time
of general agricultural prosperity.
All the measures I have recommended are
essential for the future welfare of American
agriculture. They should be enacted as
promptly as possible.
It must be our firm purpose to maintain an
increasingly healthy, productive and prosperous agriculture in the United States.
This is a basic requirement for progressive
advancement of the welfare and prosperity
of our own Nation. It is also a vital element
in our contribution to world recovery and
(fence.
Fourth, we need to consider other means
for assisting farmers to meet their special
problems. For example, we must support
and protect farm cooperatives. We must
continue to work toward a sound system of
crop insurance.
1
HARRY S. TRUMAN
NOTIC: Tor the President's statement upon signing
the Agricultural Act of 1948, see Item 155.
Furthermore, we should assist the im-
100 Statement by the President Announcing Recognition of the
State of Israel. May 14, 1948
THIS GOVERNMENT has been informed
that a Jewish state has been proclaimed in
Palestine, and recognition has been requested
by the provisional government thereof.
258
The United States recognizes the provisional government as the de facto authority
of the new State of Israel.
tfoi
Remarks at the
May 14, 1948
Mr. President of the Young
Chairman of the National L
'tnittee, distinguished gua
'Democrats:
' It is a very great privile;
here this evening, and it is a
to look down on so many
faces, and to see so much en
the Democrats.
You know, there are a
howlers who have been go
the country telling us a lot c
not so. The Republicans,
expected to nominate a can
dent. They are having a
tiding on just who that can
dent will be, and for just w!
^
I am exceedingly anxioir
publican platform of 194S.
has been their habit since i
few planks out of the old !
forms and building a plat
saying, "Me too."
I want to say to you tha
years there will be a Democ
House, and you are looking .
I was not mistaken when
about those bright, young fa<
You know, this great cou
been faced with emergencies
necessary to meet great cn
always succeeded in meetii
first one was in 1776, when ;
first conceived. In that yi
great cause; and the people
Colonies met that situation
1787, when the next great <
met and constructed the Cn
United States, the greatest d
ernment that ever has 1 .<
T:
foundation of this great rep
�PUBLIC PAPERS OF T H E PRESIDENTS
OF T H E U N I T E D STATES
Harry S. Truman
Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and
Statements of the President
JANUARY
I
TO D E C E M B E R
31,
I948
I948
3
1
UNITED
STATES G O V E R N M E N T
WASHINGTON
:
PRINTING
I964
OFFICE
�Apr. 3 [64]
Harry S. Truman, 1
enacted by the Congress in 1942.
here and the cost
led to reasonable
irice index, which
hole, was 167.5 in
ninary figures indi,lier in March. A
s time would help
; still higher,
lanning the Amerian important conrogress. But i f we
our revenue system
in, we shall sacrifice
portunities to lay a
• ore effective tax sysre needed in all imederal tax systemtaxes, individual inand gift taxes. The
jo would, by prematax system, not only
ate problems but also;
istacle in the path of
:v needed fundamental'
<rovided by this bill is
untimely,
icome tax, nearly forty
ion would go to indi'
mes i n excess of $5,000
than 5 percent of al
>
•• estate and gift ta
o million annual re(
:ily about 12,000 of
-.s. The discovery that
cry substantial savings ij
•L.ixes by dividing a f
n husband and wife
h ingenious argument;
provisions in this bill 1
the application of
v-property and comr
:, this equalization was"
ts achieved by legislator
For the reasons I have set forth, H.R. 4790
is not compatible with the requirements of
the critical international situation. It is not
compatible w i t h sound domestic economic
and debt management policies. I f enacted,
it would materially weaken this Nation's
efforts to maintain peace abroad and prosperity at home.
It is bad policy to reduce taxes i n a manner which would encourage inflation and
bring greater hardship, not relief, to our
people. It is bad policy to endanger the
soundness of our national finances at a time
when diir responsibilities arc great in an
unsettled world.
I am Lonfident that the men and women
of our country prefer the maintenance of our
national strength to a reduction in taxes
under the present circumstances.
I consider it my clear duty, therefore, to
return H.R. 4790 without my approval.
HARRY S.
TRUMAN
NOTI:: On April 2 the Congress passed the bill over
the President's veto. As enacted, H.R. 4790 is Public
Law 471, Soth Congress (62 Stat. 110).
64 Statement by the President Upon Signing the Foreign
Assistance Act. April 3, 1948
F E W P R E S I D E N T S have had the opportunity to sign legislation of such importance
as the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948.
The signing of this act is a momentous
occasion i n the world's quest for enduring
peace.
I commend the Congress of the United
States for the cooperation it has evidenced in
the prompt passage of this measure.
Its passage is a striking manifestation of
the fact that a bipartisan foreign policy can
lead to effective action. It is even more
striking in its proof that swift and vigorous
action for peace is not incompatible with the
full operation of our democratic process of
discussion and debate. Those who are
skeptical of the effectiveness of a democratic
system should ponder the lesson of the enactment of this measure.
Our program of foreign aid is perhaps the
greatest venture in constructive statesmanship that any nation has undertaken. I t is
an outstanding example of cooperative endeavor for the common good.
The Foreign Assistance Act is the best
answer that this country can make in reply
to the vicious and distorted misrepresenta-
tions of our efforts for peace which have been
spread abroad by those who do not wish our
efforts to succeed. This measure is America's answer to the challenge facing the free
world today.
It is a measure for reconstruction, stability,
and peace. Its purpose is to assist in the
preservation of conditions under which free
institutions can survive in the world. I believe that the determination of the American
people to work for conditions of enduring
peace throughout the world, as demonstrated
by this act, will encourage free men and
women everywhere, and will give renewed
hope to all mankind that there will one day
be peace on earth, good will among men.
NOTE: The Foreign Assistance Act of 1948 is Public
Law 47;, Soth Congress (62 Stat. 137).
On April 3 the White House released the following
statement by Secretary of State Marshall:
"The decision of the United States Government
as confirmed by the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948
is, I think, an historic step in the foreign policy of
this country.
"The leaders in the Congress and the membership generally have faced a great crisis with courage
and wisdom, and with legislative skill, richly deserving of the approval and the determined support
of the people."
203
�PUBLIC PAPERS OF T H E PRESIDENTS
OF T H E U N I T E D STATES
Harry S. Truman
Containing th Public Messages, Speeches, and
Statements of the President
JANUARY
I TO D E C E M B E R
31,
I948
1948
UNITED
STATES G O V E R N M E N T
WASHINGTON
:
PRINTING
I964
OFFICE
�Harry S. Truman, ig^S
il immigrants.
I re-
-nw fit to impose such
. i me also emasculates
i of the House bill
c granting of permaa maximum of 15,000
• are already lawfully
• ill now requires a conihe Congress in favor
.er his application has
he Attorney General.
. the effect of perpetuie practice of special
ss to adjust the status
cr disappointment this
isplaced victims of perto the United States for
s of our citizens who
in the finest American
iembers of the Congress
ut unsuccessfully for a
sons bill.
I hope that
iment w i l l not turn to
bill, i n spite of its many
it to delay further the
ilement program and in
the necessary remedial
when the Congress
•rsons Act of 1948 is Public
-s (62 Stat. 1009).
e House announced that the
.mend the following amendning special session of the
[ion of all discrimination be• n, (2) certain changes in ad... (3) elimination of the pro•aging of future immigration
country, and (4) increasing
d persons entering the United
vears.
June 28 I 144]
143 Statement by the President Upon Signing the
Trade Agreements Extension Act. June 26, 1948
I H A V E today signed H.R. 6556, the Trade
Agreements Extension Act of 1948. U n fortunately, this act extends for only 1 year
the authority to enter into reciprocal trade
agreements. It also makes unwise changes
in the procedure for negotiating such
agreements.
I regret very much that the Congress has
not seen fit to renew this authority for the
customary 3-year period. There is no valid
reason for a i-year limitation, which appears
to cast some doubt upon our intentions for
the future.
Moreover, the act prescribes a new, complicated, time-consuming, and unnecessary
procedure for the negotiation of reciprocal
trade agreements. This change in procedure
will necessarily hamper and obstruct the
negotiation of new agreements, a defect
which is particularly undesirable in view of
the act's limitation to a single year.
The reciprocal trade agreements program
has long occupied a key position in our foreign policy and in our endeavors to assist
world recovery. As I pointed out in a special
message to the Congress last March, the program is a tested and practical means for
achieving the benefits of expanding world
commerce for the United States and other
countries and a continuing evidence of the
determination of the United States to contribute its full share to the reconstruction of
a sound and growing world economy as a
basis for enduring world peace.
As part of the European recovery program, the participating countries have agreed
to work together to lower barriers to trade.
The United States can surely do no less than
show its determination to support the same
principle, which is so important to an expansion of world markets and wotld trade.
It is so essential that the reciprocal trade
agreements program should not lapse, that I
have signed this act in spite of its serious
defects.
.
... •
I will do mv best to make the new procedures work. As a first step, I intend to
proceed in the near future with plans for
bringing other countries into the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade signed with
22 countries at Geneva in October, 1947.
The reciprocal trade agreements program
is one of high national policy. When the
act is again extended next year, I trust that
the defects contained in this year's extension
will be corrected, in order that the act w i l l
be restored as a fully effective instrument of
permanent United States policy.
NOTE: AS enacted, H.R. 6556 is Public Law 792, Soth
Congress (62 Stat. 1053).
144 Statement by the President Upon Signing the
Foreign Aid Appropriation Act. June 28, 1948
I H A V E signed today H . R . 6801, the For-
Children's Fund and the International Ref-
eign A i d Appropriation Act, 1949, providing
ugee Organization.
funds for the first year of the European re-
tion for these purposes included in the act
The total appropria-
covery program; for aid to Greece, Turkey,
is $6,030,710,228.
and China; for meeting our occupation re-
By far the largest item in this act is the
sponsibilities in Europe and the Far East;
$4 billion appropriation for economic co-
and for our participation in the International
operation with Europe.
I know that the
385
�[144]
June 28
Public Papers of the Presidents
American people share the deep sense of
satisfaction which I feel in taking this final
step to make the European recovery program
effective. It furnishes concrete evidence and
assurance to the free peoples of the world
that wc stand ready to work side by side
with them to preserve free institutions in
stability and peace.
In June of last year, the United States indicated its readiness to work with the countries of Europe in developing a program of
joint action to achieve economic recovery.
Representatives of 16 European countries
drew up a program in response to this suggestion and submitted it to this Government
in September. After careful study, I submitted to the Congress on December 19
recommendations for legislation to make the
European recovery program a reality. Following full consideration by the Congress,
T45
this legislation was enacted on April 3.
Then began the last step in the legislative
process—the enactment of the necessary appropriations to make the law effective.
Again the program was carefully scrutinized
and its various elements weighed and tested.
As finally enacted, this appropriation is substantially in accord with the program presented to the Congress 6 months ago. It
represents the combined judgment and will
of the Executive and the Congress. It was
evolved in the spirit of cooperation and not
of partisan conflict. It demonstrates the
united determination of our people to make
good our pledge of cooperation to those who,
like ourselves, are striving to achieve enduring peace and prosperity among all nations.
NOTE: AS enacted, H.R. 6801 is Public Law 793,
Soth Congress (62 Stat. 1054).
For the President's statement on April 3 upon
signing the Foreign Assistance Act, see Item 64.
Statement by the President Upon Signing Bill Providing
Retirement Benefits for Members of the Armed Forces
Reserves. June 29, 1948
I H A V E today signed H.R. 2744, title I I I
of which provides for retirement benefits for
individuals who remain active in the various
programs for the Reserve components of our
Armed Forces for at least 20 years.
Reserve personnel of the Army, the Air
Force, the Navy, the Marine Corps, and the
Coast Guard alike will receive retirement
benefits under this title in direct proportion
to the time and effort expended in the Reserves. These benefits will furnish an added
incentive, which has been lacking heretofore,
for well-trained men to remain active in the
Reserves for a number of years. By making
this kind of provision for the establishment
of a career Reserve, this title is a very significant step forward in our organization for
national defense.
386
The way is now open to the development
of an ever-ready Reserve as an integral part
of the United States Armed Forces. To
achieve this end is the responsibility of the
civilian heads of the national defense agencies. But in a deeper sense the responsibility
rests on the officers and enlisted men of the
Regular Armed Forces and their counterparts in the Reserve forces of each service.
If the standing forces of the Regular establishments are to be kept small, as is the
tradition in the United States, the civilian
Reserve must always be ready as part of the
trained nucleus around which a citizen
Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Coast Guard,
and Air Force can be built if the need ever
arises. The Reserve and Regular forces must
therefore work together in effective team-
work, with the Rcgu
the equipment, the t
the expert guidance n
forces, and the Reset'
their best efforts to
defense establishment
readiness.
As Commander in
Regular services to w
I46
Statement 1
Life of the
I H A V E today sign;
which extends the life
Company i year.
I am keenly disapi
gress did not see fit to
lation for the econom
Virgin Islands whici
recommended. Stops.
H.R. 5904 contribute
the islands economica
raising the standard r
tants. Economic self-'
achieved by a prograi
the economic base of tl
the development of loc
The first step in sue!
the enactment of a per
the Virgin Islands
powers and more a
sources. A bill to .-K
tives was introduced
but failed to pass. I
tinues the Company f
no new powers. Fun<
ernment Corporation
will only be sufficient
through part of the cn
In addition to wc
supporting Virgin Isln
eral Government sh
whereby the Virgin
�AN
Third Annual Message
r
in s few weeks, when
are known. The War
as to the need for the
e to enable the Congress
resent law on March 31.
i forces at the strength
ie Congress.
rve is also vital to our
ished through universal
mmission on Universal
raining program and I
nission will be of benefit
us on this problem.
; substantial. There is
and at the same time
the establishment of a
I communicate with the
the establishment of a
n army, a navy, and an
It depends on a sound
agriculture, on satisfied
ate enterprise free from
rial harmony and pro>ms—on all the forces
noralfiberand spiritual
responsibility than the
; collective security for
and mutual respect, we
Km us.
he course of world hisrished ideals, and if we
le over the world, then
acy will spread over the
e our devotion to these
this job together.
^ of the world in Hia
THIRD ANNUAL MESSAGE.
THK WHITE HOUSE,
Janua,
MR. PRESIDENT, MR. SPEAKER, MEMBERS or THE EIGHTIETH CONGRESS:
We are here today to consider the state of the Union.
On this occasion, above all othera, the Congress and the President
should concentrate their attention not upon party but upon country,
not upon the things which divide us but upon those which bind us
together—the enduring principles of our American system and our
common aspirations for the future welfare and security of the people
of the United States.
The United States has become great because we, as a people, have
been able to work together for great objectives even while differing
about details.
The elements of our strength are many. They mclude our democratic government, our economic system, our great natural resources.
But these are only partial explanations.
The basic source of our strength is spiritual. For we are a people
with a faith. We believe in the dignity of man. We believe that he
was created in the image of the Father of us all.
We do not believe that men exist merely to strengthen the state
or to be cogs in an economic machine. We do believe that governments arc oroated to serve the people and that economic systems exist
to minister to their wants. We have a profound devotion to the
welfare and rights of the individual as a human being.
The faith of our people has particular meaning at this time in
history because of the unsettled and changing state of the world.
The victims of war in many lands are striving to rebuild their lives,
and are seeking assurance that the tragedy of war will not occur
again. Throughout the world new ideas are challenging the old.
Men of all nations are reexamining the beliefs by which they live.
Great scientific and industrial changes have released new forces which
will affect the future course of civilization.
The state of our Union reflects the changing nature of the modern
world. On all sides there is heartening evidence of great energy, of
capacity for economic development, and, even more flfeportant,
capacity for spiritual growth. But accompanying this great activity
there are equally great questions, great anxieties, great aspirations.
They represent the concern of an enlightened people that conditions
should be so arranged as to make life more worth while.
We must devote ourselves to finding answers to these anxieties and
aspirations. We seek answers which will embody the moral and
spiritual elements of tolerance, unselfishness, and brotherhood upon
which true freedom and opportunity must rest.
As we examine the state of our Union today, we can benefit from
viewing it on a basis of the accomplishments of the last decade and our
goals for the next. How far have we come during the last 10 years
and how far can we go during the next 10?
�rr
2952
HARRY
S.
TRUMAN
I t was 10 years ago that the determination of dictators to wage war
upon mankind became apparent. The years that followed brought
untold death and destruction.
We shared in the human suffering of the war, but wc were fortunate
enough to escape most of war's destruction. We were able through
these 10 years to expand the productive strength of our farms and
factories.
More important, however, is the fact that these years brought us
new courage and new confidence in the ideals of our free democracy.
Our deep belief in freedom and justice was reinforced in the crucible
of war.
On the foundations of our greatly strengthened economy and our
renewed confidence in democratic values we can continue to move
forward.
There are some who look with fear and distrust upon planning for
the future; yet our great national achievements have been attained
by those with vision. Our Union was formed, our frontiers were
pushed back, and our great industries were built by men who looked
ahead.
I propose that we look ahead today toward those goals for the future
which have the greatest bearing upon the foundations of our democracy
and the happiness of our people.
I do so, confident in the thought that with clear objectives and with
firm determination we can, in the next 10 years, build upon the
accomplishments of the past decade to achieve a glorious future.
Year by year, beginning now, we must make a substantial part of
this progress.
Our first goal is to secure fully the essential human rights of our
citizens.
The United States has always had a deep concern for human rights.
Religious freedom, free speech, and freedom of thought are cherished
realities in our land. Any denial of human rights is a denial of the
basic beliefs of democracy and of our regard for the worth of each
individual.
Today, however, some of our citizens are still denied equal opportunity tor education, for jobs and economic advancement, and for
the expression of their views at the polls. Most serious of all, some are
denied equal protection under our laws. Whether discrimiration is
based on race, or creed, or color, or land of origin, it is utterly contrary
to American ideals of democracy.
The recent report of the President's Committee oit Civil Rights
points the way to corrective action by the Federal Government and
by State and local governments. Because of the need for effective
Federal action, I shall send a special message to the Congress on this
important subject.
We should also consider our obligation to assure the fullest possible
measure of civil rights to the people of our Territories and possessions.
I believe that the time has come for Alaska and Hawaii to be admitted
to the Union as States.
Our second goal is to protect and develop our human resources.
The safeguarding of the rights of our citizens must be accompanied
by an equal regard for their opportunities for development and. their
protection from economic insecurity. In this Nation the ideals of
freedom and equality can be given specific meaning in terms of health,
�Third Annual
of dictators to wage war
t that followed brought
r, but we were fortunate
We were able through
ingth of our farms and
these years brought us
of our free democracy,
inforced in the crucible
trust upon planning for
nts have been attained
icd, our frontiers were
lilt by men who looked
'ear objectives and with
years, build upon the
ieve a glorious future,
o a substantial part of
il human rights of our
Message
•*953
education, social security, and housing.
Over the past Vl years we have erected a sound framework ef
social-security legislation. Many millions of our citizens are now
protected against the loss of income which can come with unemployment, old age, or the death of wage earners. Yet our system has
gaps and inconsistencies; it is only naif finished.
We should now extend unemployment compensation, old-age
benefits, and survivors' benefits to millions who are not now protected.
Wc should also raise the level of benefits.
The greatest gap in our social-security structure is the lack of
adequate provision for the Nation's health. We are rightlv proud
of the high standards of medical care we know how to provide in the
United States. The fact is, however, that most of our people cannot
afford to pay for the care they need.
I have often and strongly urged that this condition demands a
national health program. The heart of the program must be a
national system of payment for medical care based on well-tried
insurance principles. This great Nation cannot afford to allow its
citizens to suffer needlessly from the lack of proper medical care.
Our ultimate aim must be a comprehensive insurance system to
protect all our people equally against insecurity and ill health.
Another fumlamcnta aim of our democracy is to provide an
adequate education for every person.
Our educational systems face a financial crisis. I t is deplorable
that in a nation as rich as ours there arc millions of children who do
not have adequate schoolhouscs or enough teachers for a good elementary or secondary education. I f there are educational inadcuacies in any State, the whole Nation suffers. The Federal
iovemment has a responsibility for providing financial aid to meet
this crisis.
In addition, we must make possible greater equality of opportunity
to all our citizens for an education. Only by so doing can wc insure
that our citizens will bo capable of understanding and sharing the
responsibilities of democracy.
The Government's programs for health, education, and security are
of such great importance to our democracy that wc should now establish an executive department for their administration.
Health and education have their beginning in the home. No
matter what our hospitals or schools arc like, the youth of our Nation
are handicapped when millions of them live in city slums and country
shacks. Within the next decade we must see that every American
family has a decent home. As an immediate step we need ihe longrange housing program which I have recommended on many occasions.
This should include financial aids designed to yield more housing at
lower prices. I t should provide public housing for low-income
families, and vigorous development of new techniques to lower the
cost of building.
Until wc can overcome the present drastic housing shortage, wo
must extend and strengthen rent control.
Wc have had, and shall continue to have, a special interest in the
welfare of our veterans. Over 14,000,000 men and women' who
served in the armed forces in World War I I have now returned to
civilian life. Over 2,000,000 veterans arc being helped through school ;
"millions have been aided while finding jobs, and have been helped in
a
�2954
HARRY
S
TRUMAN
buying homes, in obtaining medical care, and in adjusting themselves
to physical handicaps.
All but a very few veterans have successfully made the transition
from military life to their home communities. The success of our
veterans' program is proved by this fact. This Nation is proud of
the eagerness shown by our veterans to become self-reliant and selfsupporting citizens.
Our third goal is to conserve and use our natural resources so that
they can contribute most effectively to the welfare of our people.
The resources given by nature to this country are rich and extensive. The material foundations of our growth and economic development are the bounty of ourfields,the wealth of our mines and forests,
and the energy of our waters. As a nation, wc are coming to appreciate more each day the close relationship oetwoen the conservation
of these resources and the preservation of our national stroneth.
Yet we are doing far less than we know how to do to make use of
our resources without destroying them. Both the public and private
use of these resources must have the primary objective of maintaining and increasing these basic supports for an expanding future.
We must continue to take specific steps toward this goal. Wc must
vigorously defend our natural wealth against those who would misuse it for selfish gain.
We need accurate and comprehensive knowledge of our mineral
resources and must intensify our efforts to develop new supplies and
to acquire stock piles of scarce materials.
We need to protect and restore our land—public and private—
through combatting erosion and rebuilding the fertility of the soil.
We must expand our reclamation program to bring millions of
acres of arid land into production, and to improve water supplies for
additional millions of acres. This will provide new opportunities
for veterans and others, particularly in the West, and aid in providing
arisingliving standard lor a growing population.
We must protect and restore ourforestsby sustained-yield forestry
and by planting new trees in areas now slashed and barren.
We must continue to erect multiple-purpose dams on our great
rivers—not only to reclaim land, but also to preventfloods,to extend
our inland waterways, and to provide hydroelectric power. This
public power must not be monopolized for private gain. Only through
well-established policies of transmitting power directly to its market
and thus encouraging widespread use at low rates can the Federal
Government assure the people of their full share of its benefits.
Additional power—public and private—is needed to raisl^thc ceilings
now imposed by power shortages on industrial and 'agricultural
development.
We should achieve the wise use of resources through the integrated
development of our great river basins. We can learn much from our
Tennessee Valley experience. We should no longer delay in applying
the lessons of that vast undertaking to our other great river basins.
Our fourth goal is to lift the standard of living for all our people
by strengthening our economic system and sharing more broadly
among our people the goods wc produce.
The amazing economic progress of the past 10 years points the way
for the next 10.
r.
�v N
Third Annual Message
m adjusting themselves
illy made the transition
-a. The success of our
Phis Nation is proud of
me self-reliant and selfatural resources so that
•Hare of our people,
try are rich and extenand economic develop•f our mines and forests,
vc are coming to appretween the conservation
national strength.
w to do to make use of
i the public and private
objective of maintainexpanding future,
ird this goal. We must
those who would miswledge of our mineral
vclop new supplies and
—public and private—
e fertility of the sod.
i to bring millions of
rove water supplies fpr
ide new opportunities
't, and aid m providing
>n.
ustained-yield forestry
I and barren,
se dams on our great
event floods, to extend
>electric power. This
:e gain. Only through
directly to its market
rates can the Federal
share of its benefits,
•d to raise the ceilings
.rial and agricultural
hrough the integrated
learn much from our
iger delay in applying
ier great river basins,
ing for all our people
haring more broadly
i years points the way
'955
Today 14,000,000 more people have jobs than in 1938.
Our yearly output of goods and services has increased by two-thirds.
The average income of our people, measured in dollars of equal purchasing power, has increased—after taxes—by more than 50 percent.
In no other 10 years have farmers, businessmen, and wage earners
made such great gains.
We may not be able to expand as rapidly in the next decade as in
the last, because we are now starting from full employment and very
high production, but we can increase our annual output by at least
one-third above the present level. We can lift our standard of living
to nearly double what it was 10 years ago.
If we distribute these gains properly, we can go far toward stamping
out poverty in our generation.
To do this, agriculture, business, and labor must move forward
together.
Permanent farm prosperity and agricultural abundance will be
achieved only as our whole economy grows and prospers. The
farmer can sell more food at good prices when the incomes of wage
earners are high and when there is full employment. Adequate diets
for every American family," and the needs of our industries at full
production, will absorb a farm output well above our present levels.
Although the average farmer is now better off than ever before,
farm families as a whole have only begun to catch up with the standards of living enjoyed in the cities. In 1946 the average income of
farm people was $779, contrasted with an average income of $1,288
for nonfarm people. Within the next decade we should eliminate
elements of inequality in these living standards.
To this end our farm program should enable the farmer to market
his varied crops at lair price levels and to improve his standard of
living.
Wc need to continue price supports for major farm commodities
on a basis which will afford reasonable protection against fluctuations
in the levels of production and demand, The present price-support
program must bo reexamined and modernized.
Crop insurance should be strengthened and its benefits extended
in order to protect the farmer against the special hazards to which he
is subject.
We also need to improve the means for getting farm products into
the markets and into the hands of consumers. Cooperatives which
directly or indirectly serve this purpose must be encouraged—not
discouraged. The school-lunch program should be continued and
adequately
financed.
*
We need to go forward with the rural electrification program to
bring the benefits of electricity to all our farm population.
We can, and must, aid and encourage farmers to conserve their soil
resources and restore the fertility of land that has suffered from
neglect or unwise use.
All of these are practical measures upon which we should act
immediately to enable agriculture to make its full contribution to our
prosperity.
We must also strengthen our economic system within the next
decade by enlarging our industrial capacity within the framework of
our free enterprise system.
�2956
HARRY
S.
TRUMAN
We are today far short of the industrial capacity we need for a
growing future. At least $50,000,000,000 should be invested by
industry to improve and expand our productive facilities over the
next few years. But this is only the beginning. -The industrial
application of atomic energy and other scientific advances will constantly open up further opportunities for expansion. Farm prosperity and high employment will call for an immensely increased
output of goods and services.
Growth and vitality in our economy depend on vigorous private
enterprise. Free competition is the key to industrial development,
full production and employment, fair prices, and an ever improving
standard of living. Competition is seriously limited today in many
industries by the concentration of economic power and other elements
of monopoly. The appropriation of sufficient funds to permit proper
enforcement of the present antitrust laws is essential. Beyond that
we should go on to strengthen our legislation to protect competition.
Another basic element of a strong economic system is the well-being
of wage earners.
We have learned that the well-being of workers depends on high
production and consequent high employment. We have learned
equally well that the welfare of industry and agriculture depends
on high incomes for our workers.
The Government has wisely chosen to set a floor under wages; but
our 40-cent minimum wage is inadequate and obsolete. I recommend
lifting the minimum wage to 75 cents an hour.
In general, however, we must continue to rely on our sound system
of collective bargaining to set wage scales. Workers' incomes should
increase at a rate consistent with the maintenance of sound price,
profit, and wage relationships and with increasing productivity.
The Government's part in labor-management relations is now
largely controlled by the terms of the Labor-Management Relations
Act of 1947. I made my attitude clear on this act in my veto message
to the Congress last June. Nothing has occurred since to change my
opinion of this law. As long as it remains the law of the land, however,
I shall carry out my constitutional duty to administer it.
As we look ahead we can understand the crucial importance of
restraint and wisdom in arriving at new labor-management contracts.
Work stoppages would result in a loss of production—a loss which
could bring higher prices for our citizens and could also deny the
necessities of life to the hard-pressed peoples of other lands. I t is
my sincere hope that the representatives of labor and otindustry will
bear in mind that the Nation as a whole has a vital stakeTp the success
of their bargaining efforts.
If we surmount our current economic difficulties, we can move
ahead to a great increase in our national income which will enable
all our people to enjoy richer and fuller lives.
All of us must advance together. One-fifth of our families now
have average annual incomes of less than $850. We must see that
our gains in national income are made more largely available to those
with low incomes, whose need is greatest. This will benefit us all
through providing a stable foundation of buying power to maintain
prosperity.
Business, labor, agriculture, and Government, working together,
�* AN
d capacity we need for a
) should be invested by
luctive facilities over the
eginning. 'The industrial
entific advances will con- expansion. Farm pros- an immensely increased
•pend on vigorous private
0 industrial development,
^s, and an ever improving
dy limited today in many
power and other elements
nt funds to permit proper
is essential. Beyond that
in to protect competition,
ic system is the well-being
workers depends on high
ment. We have learned
and agriculture depends '
t afloorunder wages; but
id obsolete. I recommend
«ur.
> rely on our sound system
Workers' incomes shouldf
ntenance of sound price,','
easing productivity.
|
gement relations is now|
jr-Management Relations];:
lis act in my veto messages
:urred since to change my|
c law of the land, however,f
administer it.
he crucial importance of j!
>r-managcment contracts. |
production—a loss which j
and could also deny the!
Ics of other lands. It islabor and of industry will .
1 vital stake in the success
difficulties, we can move
ueomc,which will enable.'j
fth of our families now
850. We must see that
argely available to those
This will benefit us all
lying power to maintain
ment, working together, i
Third Annual Message
2957
lUst develop the policies which will make possible therealizationof
wje full benefits of ou economic system.
i|0ur fifth goal is|to achieve world|ipeacc based on principles of
freedom and justicejand the equality of all nations.
tevice within our generation, worldlwars have taught us that we
cannot isolate irurse yes from the rest « the world.
iWe have learned il t the loss of freedom in any area of the world
means a loss of fredltlom to ourselves-|that the loss of independence
ty'any nation adds|directly to the insecurity of the United States
and aJJ free nations.!
%
SiWe have learned Jhat a healthy world economy is essential to world
pejeg—that econonjic distress is a disease whose evil effects spread
far beyond the boundaries of the afflicted nation.
For these reasons|the United Statesjis vigorously following policies
designed to achievegi peaceful and prosperous world.
We are giving, and will continue Uy give, our full support to the
United Nations. While that Organization has encountered unforeseen and unwelcome difficulties, I am confident of its ultimate success.
We are also devoting our efforts toward world economic recovery and
the revival of world trade. These actions are closely related and
mutually supporting;?
%
We believe that the United States can be an effective force for world
peace only if it is strong. We look forward to the day when nations
will decrease their armaments; yet, so long as there remains serious
opposition to the ideals of a peaceful world, we must maintain strong
armed forces.
{$;
^
The passage of the National Security Act by the Congress at its
last session was a notable step in providing for the security of this
country. A further step which I consider of even greater importance
is the early provision for universal training. There are many elemen ts
in a balanced national security program, all interrelated and neces, but universal training should be the foundation for them all.
ivorable decisiontby the Congress*at an early date is of world
importance. I am convinced that such' action is vital to the security
of this Nation and to the maintenance of its leadership.
The United States is engaged today in many international activities
directed toward the creation of lasting peacefulrelationshipsamong
nations.
We have been giving substantial aid to Greece and Turkey to
assist these nations in preserving their integrity against foreign pressures. Had it not been for our aid, their situation today ^ight well
be radically different. The continued integrity of those countries will
have a powerful effect upon other nations in the Middle East and
Europe struggling to maintain their independence while they repair
the damages of war. ; <
,
'fSf*
The United States has special responsibilities with respect to the
countries in which yt have Occupation forces: Germany, Austria,
t>
Japan, and Korea. Our efforts to reach agreements on peace settlements for these countries have so far been blocked, but we shall
continue to exert our utmost efforts to obtain satisfactory settlements for each of these nations.
Many thousands of displaced persons, still living in camps overseas,
should be allowed entry into tne United States. I again urge the
r
la
n
1
�I
2958
HARRY
S.
TRUMAN
Congreae to pass suitable legislation at once so that this Nation may
do its share in caring for homeless and suffering refugees of all faiths.
I believe that the admission of these persons wul add to the strength
and energy of this Nation.
We are moving toward our goal of world peace in many ways, but
the most important efforts which we are now making are those which
support world economic reconstruct'on. We are seeking to restore
the world trading system which was shattered by the war and to
remedy the economic paralysis which grips many countries.
To restore world trade we have recently taken the lead in bringing
about the greatest reduction of world tariffs that has ever occurred.
The extension of the provisions of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements
Act, which made this achievement possible, is of extreme importance.
We must also go on to support the International Trade Organization,
through which we hope to obtain worldwide agreement on a code of
fair conduct in international trade.
Our present major effort toward economic reconstruction is to
support the program for recovery developed by the countries of
Europe. In my recent message to the Congress, I outlined the
reasons why it is wise and necessary for the United States to extend
this support.
I want to reaffirm my belief in the soundness and promise of this
proposal. When the European economy is strengthened, the product
of its industry will be of benefit to many other areas of economic
distress. The ability of free men to overcome hunger and despair
will be a moral stimulus to the entire world.
We intend to work also with other nations in achieving world
economic recovery. We shall continue our cooperation with the
nations of the Western Hemisphere. A special program of assistance
to China, to provide urgent relief needs and to speed reconstruction,
will be submitted to the Congress.
Unfortunately, not all governments share the hope of the people of
the United States that economic reconstruction in many areas of the
world can be achieved through cooperative effort among nations. In
spite of these differences, we will go forward with our efforts to overcome economic paralysis.
No nation by itself can carry these programs to success; they depend
upon the cooperative and honest efforts of all participating countries.
Yet the leadership is inevitably ours.
I consider it of the highest importance that the Congress should
authorize support for the European recovery program for the period
from April 1, 1948, to June 30, 1952, with an iniliaPWmount for the
first 15 months of 6.8 billion dollars. I urge the Congress to act
promptly on this vital measure of our foreign policy on this decisive
contribution to world peace.
We are following a sound, constructive, and practical course in
carrying out our determination to achieve peace.
We arefightingpoverty, hunger, and suffering.
This leads to peace—not war.
We are building toward a world where all nations, large and small
alike, may live free from the fear of aggression.
This leads to peace—not war.
Above all else we are striving to achieve a concord among the
�AN
so that thia Nation may
ring refugees of all faiths.
) will add to the strength
peace in many ways, but
v making are those which
'e are seeking to restore
ered by the war and to
nany countries,
aken the lead in bringing
a that has ever occurreo.
procal Trade Agreements
is of extreme importance,
onal Trade Organization,
e agreement on a code of
-n ic reconstruction is to
> d by the countries of
e
'ongress, I outlined the
• United States to extend
Iness and promise of this
trengthened, the product
other areas of economic
ome hunger and despair
:ions in achieving world
ir cooperation with the
ial program of assistance
to speed reconstruction,
the hope of the people of
ion in many areas of the
(Tort among nations. In
with our efforts to overs to success; they depend
1 participating countries.
)at the Congress should
• program for the period
n initial amount for the
ge the Congress to act
i policy on this decisive
and practical course in
ice.
ring.
nations, large and small
on.
• a concord among the
Third Annual Message
2
959
peoples of the world based upon the dignity of the individual and the
brotherhood of man.
This leads to peace—not war.
We can go forward with confidence that we are following sound
policies, both at home and with other nations, which will lead us
toward our great goals for economic, social, and moral achievement.
As we enter the new year, we must surmount one major problem
which affects all our goals. That is the problem of inflation.
Already inflation in this country is undermining the living standards
of millions of families. Food costs too much. Housing has reached
fantastic price levels. Schools and hospitals are infinancialdistress.
Inflation threatens to bring on disagreement and strife between labor
and management.
Worst of all, inflation holds the threat of another depression, just
as we had a depression after the unstable boom following the First
World War.
When I announced last October that the Congress was being called
into session, I described the price increases which had taken place
since June 1946. Wholesale prices had increased 40 percent, and
retail prices had increased 23 percent.
Since October prices have continued to rise. Wholesale prices
have gone up at an annual rate of 18 percent, Retail prices have gone
up at an annual rate of 10 percent.
The events which have occured since I presented my 10-point
anti-inflation program to the Congress on November 17 have made it
even clearer tbat all 10 points are essential.
High prices must not be our means of rationing.
We must deal effectively and at once with the high cost of living.
We must stop the spiral of inflation.
I trust that within the shortest possible time the Congress will
make available to the Government the weapons that are so desperately
needed in the fight against inflation.
One of the most powerful anti-inflationary factors in our economy
today is the excess of Government revenues over expenditures.
Government expenditures have been and must continue to be held
to the lowest safe levels. Since VJ-day Federal expenditures have
been sharply reduced. They have been cut from more than 63 billion
dollars in the fiscal year 1946 to less than 38 billion dollars in the
presentfiscalyear. The number of civilian employees has been cut
nearly in half—from 3 million down to 2 million.
%
On the other hand, Government revenues must not bt reduced.
Until inflation has been stopped there should be no cut inflaxesthat
is not offset by additions at another point in our tax structure.
Certain adjustments should be made within our existing tax structure that will not affect total receipts, yet will adjust the tax burden
so that those least able to pay will have their burden lessened by the
transfer of a portion of it to those best able to pay.
Many of our families today are suffering hardship because of the
high cost of living. At the same time profits of corporations reached
an all-time record in 1947. Corporate profits totaled 17 billion dollars
after taxes. This compared with 12.5 billion dollars in 1946, the
previous high year.
Because of this extraordinarily high level of profits, corporations
�2960
HARRY
S.
TRUMAN
can well afford to carry a larger share of the tax load at this time.
During this period, in which the high cost of living is bearing down
on so many of our families, tax adjustments should be made to ease
their burden. The low-income group particularly is being pressed
•ery hard. To this group a tax adjustment would result in a saving
that could be used to buy the necessities of life.
I recommend therefore that, effective January 1, 1948, a cost of
living tax credit be extended to our people consisting of a credit of
$40 to each individual taxpayer'and an additional credit of $40 for
each dependent. Thus the income tax of a man with a wife and two
children would be reduced $160. The credit would be extended to
all taxpayers, but it would be particularly helpful to those in the
low-income group.
It is estimated that such a tax credit would reduce the Federal
revenue by 3.2 billion dollars. This reduction should be made up
by increasing the tax on corporate profits in an amount that will
produce this sum—with appropriate adjustment for small corporations.
This is the proper method of tax relief at this time. It gives
relief to those who need it most without cutting the total tax revenue
of the Government.
When the present danger of inflation has passed we should consider
tax reduction based upon a revision of our entire tax structure.
When we have conquered inflation, we shall be in a position to
move forward toward our chosen goals.
As we do so let us keep ever before us our high purposes.
We are determined that every citizen of this Nation shall have an
equal right and equal opportunity to grow in wisdom and in stature
and to take his place in the control of his Nation's destiny.
We are determined that the productive resources of the Nation
shall be used wisely and fully for the benefit of all.
We are determined that tne democratic faith of our people and the
strength of our resources shall contribute their full share to the
attainment of enduring peace in the world.
It is our faith in human dignity that underlies these purposes.
It is this faith that keeps us a strong and vital people.
This is a time to remind ourselves of these fundaifc^ntals. For
today the whole world looks to us for leadership.
*
This is the hour to rededicate ourselves to the faith in mankind
that makes us strong.
This is the hour to rededicate ourselves to the faith in God that
gives us confidence as we face the challenge of the years ahead.
�- r. Y
eptance of the bid a sum
; equal fifteen per cent of
nty-five per cent thirty,
he sale. The lien on the
on the 30th July, 1897,
S.i 1. The Government,
r, will have to pay the
e authority to do this aud
rect the Secretary of the
uired by the Court's deale a sum which will at
e Government; but sug1 amendment of the law
owers and appropriating
refor.
•it becoming the possible
ust conduct and operate,
facts for its consideration
It is clear to my mind
property to be sold at a
principal of its debt and
id interest. But whether
ts claim, should become
y, I submit to the Conit of Congress approved
to the public. I t should
oresight and munificence
reasure-house of knowl- j'J
g done so much toward
to develop the Library
iy be not only one of the
>st useful libraries in the
Second Annual Message
1881
for the removal of officials in any of the Departments. This order has
been made to give to the accused his right to be heard but without in
any way impairing the power of removal, which should always be exercised in cases of inefficiency and incompetency, and which is one of
the vital safeguards of the civil service reform system, preventing stagnation and deadwood and keeping every employee keenly alive to the
fact that the security of his tenure depends not on favor but on his own
tested and carefully watched record of service.
Much of course still remains to be accomplished before the system
can be made reasonably perfect for our needs. There are places now in
the classified service which ought to be exempted and others not classified may properly be included. I shall not hesitate to exempt cases
which I think have been improperly included in the classified service or
include those which in my judgment will best promote the public service. The system has the approval of the people and it will be my endeavor to uphold and extend it.
I am forced by the length, of this Message to omit many important
references to affairs of the Government with which Congress will have
to deal at the present session. They are fully discussed in the departmental reports, to all of which I invite your earnest attention.
The estimates of the expenses of the Government by the several Departments will, I am sure, have your careful scrutiny. While the Congress may not find it an easy task to reduce the expenses of the
Government, it should not encourage their increase. These expenses
will in my judgment admit of a decrease in many branches of the Government without injury to the public service. I t is a commanding
duty to keep the appropriations within the receipts of the Government,
and thus avoid a deficit
SECOND ANNUAL MESSAGE.
own as the Civil Service, \
en a subject of earnest ;
egislative and Executive
service has been placed
1 personal merit. While
t in deserving cases has
easons have been caremittance to the service
mical and more practigiving a hearing before
:liarged or demand made
EXHCDTIVB MANSION, December,
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
,
Notwithstanding the added burdens rendered necessary by the^waf;
our people rejoice in a very satisfactory and steadily increasing degree of
prosperity, evidenced by the largest volume of business ever recorded.
Manufacture has been productive, agricultural pursuits have yielded
abundant returns, labor in all fields of industry is better rewarded, revenue legislation passed by the present Congress has increased the Treasury's receipts to the amount estimated by its authors, thefinancesof the
�1882
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
Government have been successfully administered and its credit advanced
to the first rank, while its currency has been maintained at the world's
highest standard. Military service under a common flag and for a righteous cause has strengthened the national spirit and served to cement
more closely than ever the .fraternal bonds between every section of the
country.
A review of the relation of the United States to other powers, alway?
appropriate, is this year of primary importance in view of the momentou*
issues which have arisen, demanding in one instance the ultimate determination by arms and involving far-reaching consequences which will
tequire the earnest attention of the Congress.
In my last annual message very full consideration was given to the
question of the duty of the Government of the United States toward
Spain and the Cuban insurrection as being by far the most important
problem with which we were then called upon to deal. The considerations then advanced and the exposition of the views therein expressed
disclosed my sense of the extreme gravity of the situation. Setting aside
as logically unfounded or practically inadmissible the recognition of the
Cuban insurgents as belligerents, the recognition of the independence of
Cuba, neutral intervention to end the war by imposing a rational compromise between the contestants, intervention in favor of one or the other
party, and forcible annexation of the island, I concluded it was honestly
due to our friendly relations with Spain that she should be given a reasonable chance to realize her expectations of reform to which she had
become irrevocably committed. Within a few weeks previously she had
announced comprehensive plans which it was confidently asserted would
be efficacious to remedy the evils so deeply affecting our own country, so
injurious to the true interests of the mother country as well as to those
of Cuba, and so repugnant to the universal sentiment of humanity.
The ensuing month brought little sign of real progress toward the
pacification of Cuba. The autonomous administrations set up in the
capital and some of the principal cities appeared not to gain the favor of
the inhabitants nor to be able to extend their influence to the large extent of territory held by the insurgents, while the military arm, obviously
unable to cope with the still active rebellion, continued mafc of the most
objectionable and offensive policies of the government that nad preceded
it. No tangible relief was afforded the vast numbers of unhappy reconcentrados, despite the reiterated professions made in that regard and the
amount appropriated by Spain to that end. The proffered expedient of
zones of cultivation proved illusory. Indeed no less practical nor more
delusive promises of succor could well have been tendered to the exhausted and destitute people, stripped of all that made life and home
dear and herded in a strange region among unsympathetic strangers
hardly less necessitous than themselves.
By the end of December the mortality among them had frightfully increased. Conservative estimates from Spanish sources placed the deaths
�< £EY
•
red and its credit advanced
i maintained at the world's
)mmon flag and for a right>irit and served to cement
rtween every section of ths
es to other powers, alwayt
i in view of the momentou*
astance the ultimate deter*
g consequences which wiD
deration was given to tha
the United States toward
by far the most important;
i to deal. The considerae views therein expressed
e situation. Setting aside
ible the recognition of the
ion of the independence of ,
nposing a rational comprofavor of one or the other
concluded it was honestly
she should be given a rea- •
reform to which she had ^
weeks previously she had
confidently asserted would >
acting out own country, so
country as well as to those
timent of humanity,
real progress toward the
nistrations set up in the :
d not to gain the favor of •
influence to the large ex- ;
he military arm, obviously .
ntinued many of the most •
mtnent that had preceded
imbers of unhappy reconde in that regard and the .
he proffered expedient of
no less practical nor more
>een tendered to the exthat made life and home
unsympathetic strangers
them had frightfully insotirces placed the deaths
Second Annual
Message
1883
among these distressed people at over 40 per cent trom the time General Weyler's decree of reconcentration was enforced. With the acquiescence of the Spanish authorities, a scheme was adopted for relief by
charitable contributions raised in this country and distributed, under the
direction of the consul-general and the several consuls, by noble and
earnest individual effort through the organized agencies of the American
Red Cross. Thousands of lives were thus saved, but many thousands
more were inaccessible to such forms of aid.
The war continued on the old footing, without comprehensive plan,
developing only the same spasmodic encounters, barren of strategic
result, that had marked the course of the earlier ten years' rebellion
as well as the present insurrection from its start. No alternative save
physical exhaustion of either combatant, and therewithal the practical
ruin of the island, lay in sight, but how far distant no one could venture
to conjecture.
At this juncture, on the 15th of February last, occurred the destruction
of the battle ship Maine while rightfully lying in the harbor of Havana on
a mission of international courtesy and good will—a catastrophe the suspicious nature and horror of which stirred the nation's heart profoundly.
It is a striking evidence of the poise and sturdy good sense distinguishing
our national character that this shocking blow, falling upon a generous
people already deeply touched by preceding events in Cuba, did not move
them to an instant desperate resolve to tolerate no longer the existence of
a condition of danger and disorder at our doors that made possible such a
deed, by whomsoever wrought. Yet the instinct of justice prevailed, and
the nation anxiously awaited the result of the searching investigation at
once set on foot. The finding of the naval board of inquiry established
that the origin of the explosion was external, by a submarine mine, and
only halted through lack of positive^ testimony to fix the responsibility of
its authorship.
All these things carried conviction to the most thoughtful, even before
the finding of the naval court, that a crisis in our relations with Spain
and toward Cuba was at hand. So strong was this belief that it needed
but a brief Executive suggestion to the Congress to receive immediate
answer to the duty of making instant provision for the possibl^and perhaps speedily probable emergency of war, and the remarkable, almost
unique, spectacle was presented of a unanimous vote of both Houses, on
the 9th of March, appropriating $50,000,000 "for the national defense
and for each and every purpose connected therewith, to be expended at
the discretion of the President." That this act of prevision came none
too soon was disclosed when the application of the fund was undertaken.
Our coasts were practically undefended. Our Navy needed large provision for increased ammunition and supplies, and even numbers to cope
with any sudden attack from the navy of Spain, which comprised modern vessels of the highest type of continental perfection. Our Army also
required enlargement of men and munitions. The details of the hurried
�1884
j
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
preparation for the dreaded contingency are told in the reports of the Site*
retaries of Wai and of the Navy, and need not be repeated here. It fa
sufficient to say that the outbreak of war when it did come found oar
nation not unprepared to meet the conflict
Nor was the apprehension of coming strife confined to our own country. It was felt by the continental powers, which on April 6, through
their ambassadors and envoys, addressed to the Executive an expression
of hope that humanity and moderation might mark the course of this
Government and people, and that further negotiations would lead to an
agreement which, while securing the maintenance of peace, would afford
all necessary guaranties for the reestablishment of order in Cuba. In
responding to that representation I said I shared the hope the envoys
had expressed that peace might be preserved in a manner to terminate
the chronic condition of disturbance in Cuba, so injurious and menacing
to our interests and tranquillity, as well as shocking to our sentiments of
humanity; and while appreciating the humanitarian and disinterested
character of the communication they had made on behalf of the powers,
I stated the confidence of this Government, for its part, that equal appreciation would be shown for its own earnest and nnselfisb endeavors to
fulfill a duty to humanity by ending a situation the indefinite prolongation of which had become insufferable.
Still animated by the hope of a peaceful solution and obeying the
dictates of duty, no effort was telaxed to bring about a speedy ending
of the Cuban struggle. Negotiations to this object continued actively
with the Government of Spain, looking to the immediate conclusion of
a six months' armistice in Cuba, with a view to effect the recognition
of her people's right to independence. Besides this, the instant revocation of the order of reconcentration was asked, so that the sufferers,
returning to their homes and aided by united American and Spanish
effort, might be put in a way to support themselves and, by orderly resumption of the well-nigh destroyed productive energies of the island,
contribute to the restoration of its tranquillity and well-being. Negotiations continued for some little time at Madrid, resulting in offers by the
Spanish Government which could not but be regarded as inadequate.
It was proposed to confide the preparation of peace tcfcthe insular parliament, yet to be convened under the autonomous decrees of November,
1897, but without impairment in any wise of the constitutional powers
of the Madrid Government, which to that end would grant an armistice,
if solicited by the insurgents, for such time as the general in chief might
see fit to fix. How and with what scope of discretionary powers the
insular parliament was expected to set about the "preparation" of peace
lid not appear. If it were to be by negotiation with the insurgents, the
issue seemed to rest on the one side with a body chosen by a fraction
of the electors in the districts under Spanish control, and on the other
with the insurgent population holding the interior country, unrepre-
�LEY
1 in the reports of
> be repeated here. -.^
t
en it did come found
confined to our own
vhich on April 6,
2 Executive an e;
mark the course oi
)tiations would lead
nee of peace, would
•nt of order in Cubaiired the hope the
in a manner to
o injurious and
:kmg to our sentimen]
litarian and disin
e on behalf of the
its part, that equal aj
ad unselfish endeav
n the indefinite
solution and ol
ig about a speedy
object continued
: immediate concl
to effect the r
les this, the instant i:
ked, so that the suff
d American and
selves and, by orderl;
e energies of the
and well-being. Ni
resulting in offers b j
regarded as inadequa
peace to the insular
ous decrees of Ni
the constitutional
would grant an
he general in chief ml]
discretionary'powers
ie "preparation" of
i with the insurgents,
ody chosen by a fract
control, and on the ot'
nterior country, unre
Second Annual Message
1&85
sented in the so-called parliament and defiant at the suggestion of suing
for peace.
Grieved and disappointed at this barren outcome of my sincere endeavors to reach a practicable solution, I felt it my duty to remit the
whole question to the Congress. In the message of April 11, 1898, I
announced that with this last overture in the direction of immediate'
peace in Cuba and its disappointing reception by Spain the effort of the
Executive was brought to an end. I again reviewed the alternative
courses of action which had been proposed, concluding that the only one
consonant with international policy and compatible with ourfirm-sethistorical traditions was intervention as a neutral to stop the war and check
the hopeless sacrifice of life, even though that resort involved "hostile
constraint upon both the parties to the contest, as well to enforce a truce
as to guide the eventual settlement." The grounds justifying that step
were the interests of humanity, the duty to protect the life and property
of our citizens in Cuba, the right to check injury to our commerce and
people through the devastation of the island, and, most important, the
need of removing at once and forever the constant menace and the
burdens entailed upon our Government by the uncertainties and perils of
the situation caused by the unendurable disturbance in Cuba. I said:
The long trial has proved that the object for which Spain has waged the war can
not be attained. Thefireof insurrection mayflameor may smolder with varying
seasons, but it has not been and it is plain that it can not be extinguished by present
methods. The only hope of relief and repose from a condition which can no longer
be endured is the enforced pacification of Cuba. In the name of humanity, in the
name of civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests which give us the
right and the duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop.
In view of all this the Congress was asked to authorize and empowet
the President to take measures to secure s full and final termination of
*
hostilities between Spain and the people of Cuba and to secure in the
island the establishment of a stable government, capable of maintaining order and observing its international obligations, insuring peace and
tranquillity and the security of its citizens as well as our own, and- foi
the accomplishment of those ends to use the military and naval forces of
the United States as might be necessary, with added authority to continue generous relief to the starving people of Cuba.
k
The response of the Congress, after nine days of earnest deliberation,
during which the almost unanimous sentiment of your body was developed on every point save as to the expediency of coupling the proposed
action with a formal recognition of the Republic of Cuba as the true and
lawful government of that island—a proposition which failed of adoption—the Congress, after conference, on the 19th of April, by a vote of 42
to 35 in the Senate and 311 to 6 in the House of Representatives, passed
the memorable joint resolution declaring—
First. That the people of the island of Cuba are, and of right ought to be, free and
independent.
�J886
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
Second. That it is the duty of the United States to demand, and the Government
of the United States does hereby demand, that the Government of Spain at once relinquish its authority and government in the island of Cuba and withdraw its land
and naval forces from Cuba and Cuban waters.
Third. That the President of the United States be, and he hereby la, directed and
empowered to use the entire land and naval forces of the United States and to call
into the actual service of the United States the militia of the several States to such
extent as may be necessary to carry these resolutions into effect.
Fourth. That the United States hereby disclaims any disposition or intention to
exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except for the pacifiestion thereof, and asserts its determination when that is accomplished to leave the
government and control of the island to its people.
This resolution was approved by the Executive on the next day, April
ao. A copy was at once communicated to the Spanish minister at this
capital, who forthwith announced that his continuance in Washington
had thereby become impossible, and asked for his passports, which were
given him. He thereupon withdrew from Washington, leaving the protection of Spanish interests in the United States to the French ambassador and the Austro-Hungarian minister. Simultaneously with its
communication to the Spanish minister here, General Woodford, the
American minister at Madrid, was telegraphed confirmation of the text
of the joint resolution and directed to communicate it to the Government
of Spain with the formal demand that it at once relinquish its authority
and government in the island of Cuba and withdraw its forces therefrom, coupling this demand with announcement of the intentions of this
Government as to the future of the island, in conformity with the fourth
clause of the resolution, and giving Spain until noon of April 23 to reply.
That demand, although, as above shown, officially made known to the
Spanish envoy here, was not delivered at Madrid. After the instruction
reached General Woodford on the morning of April 21, but before he
could present it, the Spanish minister of state notified him that upon the
President's approval of the joint resolution the Madrid Government,
regarding the act as " equivalent to an evident declaration of war," had
ordered its minister in Washington to withdraw, thereby breaking off
diplomatic relations between the two countries and ceasujg all official
communication between their respective representatives. General Woodford thereupon demanded his passports and quitted Madrid the same day.
Spain having thus denied the demand of the United States and initiated
that complete form of rupture of relations which attends a state of war,
the executive powers authorized by the resolution were at once used by
me to meet the enlarged contingency of actual war between sovereign
states. On April 22 I proclaimed a blockade of the north coast of Cuba,
including ports on said coast between Cardenas and Bahia Honda, and
the port of Cienfuegos, on the south coast of Cuba, and on the 23d I called
for volunteers to execute the purpose of the resolution. By my message
of April 25 the Congress was informed of the situation, and I recommended formal declaration of the existence of a state of war b|tween the
21
'•"/.
i^'
5f
^%
ifr
�. EY
demand, and the Government
vernment of Spain at once ref Cuba and withdraw its land
nd he hereby is, directed and
the United States and to call
i of the several States to such
nto effect.
iy disposition or intention to
sland except for the pacifiesis accomplished to leave the
/e on the next day, April
Spanish minister at this
itinuance in Washington
lis passports, which were
hington, leaving the proto the French ambasSimultaneously with its
, General Woodford, the
confirmation of the text
ate it to the Government
i relinquish its authority
ithdraw its forces thereof the intentions of this
nformity with the fourth
loon of April 23 to reply,
ially made known to the
1. After the instruction
April 21, but before he
itified him that upon the
e Madrid Government,
declaration of war," had
iw, thereby breaking off
and ceasing all official
itatives. General Woodid Madrid the same day.
lited States and initiated
1 attends a state of war,
> were at once used by
n
war between sovereign
he north coast of Cuba,
and Bahia Honda, and
and on the 23d I called
ition. By my message
situation, and I recomtate of war between the
Second Annual Message
1887
United States and Spain. The Congress accordingly voted on the same
day the act approved April 25, 1898, declaring the existence of such war
from and including the 21st day of April, and reenacted the provision
of the resolution of April 20 directing the President to use all the armed
forces of the nation to carry that act into effect. Due notification of the
existence of war as aforesaid was given April 25 by telegraph to all the
governments with which the United States maintain relations, in order
that their neutrality might be assured during the war. The various governments responded with proclamations of neutrality, each after its own
methods. It is not among the least grauiymg incidents of the struggle
that the obligations of neutrality were impartially discharged by all, often
under delicate and difficult circumstances.
In further fulfillment of international duty I issued, April 26, 1898, a
proclamation announcing the treatment proposed to be accorded to vessels and their cargoes as to blockade, contraband, the exercise of the
right of search, and the immunity of neutral flags and neutral goods
under enemy's flag. A similar proclamation was made by the Spanish
Government. In the conduct of hostilities the rules of the Declaration
of Paris, including abstention from resort to privateering, have accordingly been observed by both belligerents, although neither was a party
to that declaration.
Our country thus, after an interval of half a century of peace with all
nations, found itself engaged in deadly conflict with a foreign enemy.
Kvery nerve was strained to meet the emergency. The response to the
initial call for 125,000 volunteers was instant and complete, as was also
the result of the second call, of May 25, for 75,000 additional volunteers.
The ranks of the Regular Army were increased to the limits provided by
the act of April 26,1898.
The enlisted force of the Navy on the 15th day of August, when it
reached its maximum, numbered 24,123 men and apprentices. One
hundred and three vessels were added to the Navy by purchase, 1 was
presented to the Government, 1 leased, and the 4 vessels of the International Navigation Company—the St. Paul, St. Lout's, New York, and
Paris—were chartered. In addition to these the revenue cutters apd lighthouse tenders were turned over to the Navy Department and* became
temporarily a part of the auxiliary Navy.
The maximum effective fighting force of the Navy during the war,
separated into classes, was as follows:
Four battle ships of the first class, 1 battle ship of the second class, 2
armored cruisers, 6 coast-defense monitors, 1 armored ram, 12 protected
cruisers, 3 unprotected cruisers, 18 gunboats, 1 dynamite cruiser, 11 torpedo boats; vessels of the old Navy, including monitors, 14. Auxiliary
Navy: 11 auxiliary cruisers, 28 converted yachts, 27 converted tugs, 19
converted colliers, 15 revenue cutters, 4 light-house tenders, and 19 miscellaneous vessels.
�W ILLIAM
MCKINLEY
Much alarm was felt along our entire Atlantic seaboard lest some attack
might be made by the enemy. Every precaution was taken to prevent
possible injury to our great cities lying along the coast. Temporary garrisons were provided, drawn from the State militia; infantry and light
batteries were drawn from the volunteer force. About 12,000 troops
were thus employed. The coast signal service was established for observing the approach of an enemy's ships to the coast of the United States,
and the Life-Saving and Light-House services cooperated, which enabled
the Navy Department to have all portions of the Atlantic coast, from
Maine to Texas, under observation.
The auxiliary Navy was created under the authority of Congress and
was officered and manned by the Naval Militia of the several States. This
organization patrolled the coast and performed the duty of a second line
of defense.
Under the direction of the Chief of Engineers submarine mines were
• IK
placed at the most exposed points. Before the outbreak of the war permanent mining casemates and cable galleries had been constructed at
nearly all important harbors. Most of the torpedo material was not to
be found in the market, and had to be specially manufactured. Under
date of April 19 district officers were directed to take all preliminary
measures short of the actual attaching of the loaded mines to the cables,
and on April 22 telegraphic orders were issued to place the loaded mines
in position.
The aggregate number of mines placed was 1,535, th principal har- ;
bors from Maine to California. Preparations were also made for the plant;
ing of mines at certain other harbors, but owing to the early destruction
;
of the Spanishfleetthese mines were not placed.
A(:
The Signal Corps was promptly organized, and performed service of
JJ
the most difficult and important character. Its operations during the
&
war covered the electrical connection of all coast fortifications, the establishment of telephonic and telegraphic facilities for the camps at Manila,
'
>
Santiago, and in Puerto Rico. There were constructed 300 miles of line
;^
at ten great camps, thus facilitating military movements from those points
in a manner heretofore unknown in military administration. Field tele- .
graph lines were established and maintained under the enemy's fire at
^
Manila, and later the Manila-Hongkong cable was reopeiAfel.
In Puerto Rico cable communications were opened over a discontinued
route, and on land the headquarters of the commanding officer was kept
in telegraphic or telephonic communication with the division commanders on four different lines of operations.
There was placed in Cuban waters a completely outfitted cable ship,
with war cables and cable gear, suitable both for the destruction of communications belonging to the enemy and the establishment of our own. .
Two ocean cables were destroyed under the enemy's batteries at San- • ;
tiago. The day previous to the landing of General Shaffer's corps, at
Caimanera, within 20 miles of the landing place, cable communications
a t
6
�UE Y
: seaboard lest some a
ion was taken to preven^
ie coast. TemporarygarT
nilitia; infantry and light
ce. About 12,000 troops
was established for observaast of the United States,'
cooperated, which enabled :
the Atlantic coast, from "
mthority of Congress and
> the several States,
f
the duty of a second
rs submarine mines
• outbreak of the war pei^
had been constructed
pedo material was not U
ly manufactured. UndeiSj
1 to take all preliminai
laded mines to the cabli
to place the loaded mine
.535, at the principal
re also made for the pla
^ to the early destruct
d.
and performed service
Its operations during
st fortifications, the
; for the camps at Ma
istructed 300 miles of Bt^
vements from those point
ministration. Field tel^
inder the enemy's fire'a
\ as reopened,
pened over a discontinue
manding officer was ke
h the division comr
tely outfitted cable ship*
ir the destruction of comfi
stablishment of our own.^
Miemy's batteries at San^t
eneral Shatter's corps, at*;
ce, cable communications^
Second Annual Message
1889
were established and a cable station opened giving direct communication
with the Government at Washington. This service was invaluable to
the Executive in directing the operations of the Army and Navy. With
a total force of over 1,300, the loss was by disease in camp andfield,officers and men included, only 5.
The national-defense fund of $50,000,000 was expended in large part
by the Army and Navy, and the objects for which it was used are fully
shown in the reports of the several Secretaries. It was a most timely
appropriation, enabling the Government to strengthen its defenses and
make preparations greatly needed in case of war.
This fund being inadequate to the requirements of equipment and for
the conduct of the war, the patriotism of the Congress provided the means
in the war-revenue act of June 13 by authorizing a 3 per cent popular
loan not to exceed $400,000,000 and by levying additional imposts and
taxes. Of the authorized loan $200,000,000 were offered and promptly
taken, the subscriptions so far exceeding the call as to cover it many times
over, while, preference being given to the smaller bids, no single allotment exceeded $5,000. This was a most encouraging and significant
result, showing the vast resources of the nation and the determination
of the people to uphold their country's honor.
It is not within the province of this message to narrate the history of
the extraordinary war that followed the Spanish declaration of April 21,
but a brief recital of its more salient features is appropriate.
The first encounter of the war in point of date took place April 27,
when a detachment of the blockading squadron made a reconnoissance in
force at Matanzas, shelled the harbor forts, and demolished several new
works in construction.
The next engagement was destined to mark a memorable epoch in
maritime warfare. The Pacificfleet,under Commodore George Dewey,
had lain for some we:ks at Hongkong. Upon the colonial proclamation
of neutrality being issued and the customary twenty-four hours' notice
being given, it repaired to Mirs Bay, near Hongkong, whence it proceeded to the Philippine Islands under telegraphed orders to capture 01
destroy the formidable Spanishfleetthen ass<!mbled at Manila. At daybreak on the 1st of May the American force entered Manila jBay, and
after a few hours' engagement effected the total destruction of ffle Spanishfleet,consisting of ten war ships and a transport, besides capturing the
naval station and forts at Cavite, thus annihilating the Spanish naval
power in the Pacific Ocean and completely controlling the bay of Manila,
with the ability to take the dty at will. Not a life was lost on our ships,
the wounded only numbering seven, while not a vessel was materially
injured. For this gallant achievement the Congress, upon my recommendation, fitly bestowed upon the actors preferment and substantial
reward.
The effect of this remarkable victory upon the spirit of our people and
�189O
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
upon the fortunes of the war was instant. A prestige of invindtnfity
thereby attached to our arms which continued throughout the struggle.
Reenforcements were hurried to Manila under the command of Major.
General Merritt andfirmlyestablished within sight of the capital, which
lay helpless before our guns.
On the 7th day of May the Government was advised officially of the
victory at Manila, and at once inquired of the commander d our fleet
what troops would be required. The information was received on the
15th day of May, and thefirstarmy expedition sailed May 25 and arrived
off Manila June 30. Other expeditions soon followed, the total force
consisting of 641 officers and 15,058 enlisted men.
Only reluctance to cause needless loss of life and property prevented
the early storming and capture of the dty, and therewith the absolute
military occupancy erf the whole group. The insurgents meanwhile had
resumed the active hostilities suspended by the uncompleted truce of
December, 1897. Thdr forces invested Manila from the northern and
eastern sides, but were constrained by Admiral Dewey and General Merritt from attempting an assault. It was fitting that whatever was to be
done in the way of dedsive operations in that quarter should be accomplished by the strong arm of the United States alone. Obeying the stern
precept of war which enjoins the overcoming of the adversary and the
extinction of his power wherever assailable as the speedy and sure means
to win a peace, divided victory was not permissible, for no partition of the
rights and responsibilities attending the enforcement of a just and advantageous peace could be thought of.
Following the comprehensive scheme of general attack, powerful forces
wer*; assembled at various points on our coast to invade Cuba and Puerto
Rico Meanwhile naval demonstrations were made at several exposed
points. On May 11 the cruiser Wilmington and torpedo boat Window
were unsuccessful in an attempt to silence the batteries at Cardenas, a
gallant ensign, Worth Bagley, and four seamen falling. These grievous
fatalities were, strangely enough, among the very few which occurred
during our naval operations in this extraordinary conflict.
Meanwhile the Spanish naval preparations had been pushed with great
vigor. A powerful squadron under Admiral Cervera, V^hich had assembled
at the Cape Verde Islands before the outbreak of hostilities, had crossed
the ocean, and by its erratic movements in the Caribbean Sea delayed our
military plans while baffling the pursuit of our fleets. For a time fears
were felt lest the Oregon and Marietta, then nearing home after thdr long
voyage from San Francisco of over 15,000 miles, might be surprised by
Admiral Cervera'sfleet,but their fortunate arrival dispdled these apprehensions and lent much-needed reenforcement. Not until Admiral Cervera took refuge in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, about May 19. was
it practicable to plan a systematic naval and military attack upon the
Antillean possessions of Spain.
�Second Annual Message
estige of invindbiKty
)Ughout the struggle,
i command of Major: of the capital, which
I vised officially of the
mmander of our fleet
was received on the
-d May 25 and arrived
owed, the total force
id property prevented
icrewith the absolute
gents meanwhile had
•incompleted truce of
om the northern and
vey and General Merit whatever was to be
ter should be accome. Obeying the stern
he adversary and the
peedy and sure means
for no partition of the
it of a just and advanttack, powerful forces
vade Cuba and Puerto -3
le at several exposed
orpedo boat IVinslow
tteries at Cardenas, a
ing. These grievous
few which occurred
onflict.
pushed with great
, which had assembled
lostilities, had crossed
(bean Sea delayed our
ts. For a time fears
home after their long
light be surprised by M
dispelled these appre- >
ot until Admiral Cer>a, about May 19. was
tary attack upon the
:
1891
Several demonstrations occurred on the coasts of Cuba and Puerto Rico
in preparation for the larger event. On May 13 the North Atlantic
Squadron shelled San Juan de Puerto Rico. On May 30 Commodore
Schley's squadron bombarded the forts guarding the mouth of Santiago
Harbor. Neither attack had any material result. It was evident that
well-ordered land operations were indispensable to achieve a decisive
advantage.
The next act in the war thrilled not alone the hearts of our countrymen but the world by its exceptional heroism. On the night of June 3
Lieutenant Hobson, aided by seven devoted volunteers, blocked the narrow outlet from Santiago Harbor by sinking the collier Merrimac in the
channel, under afiercefirefrom the shore batteries, escaping with their
lives as by a miracle, but falling into the hands of the Spaniards. It is a
most gratifying incident of the war that the bravery of this little bond of
heroes was cordially appreciated by the Spanish admiral, who sent a flag
of truce to notify Admiral Sampson of their safety and to compliment
them on their daring act. They were subsequently exchanged July 7.
By June 7 the cutting of the last Cuban cable isolated the island.
Thereafter the invasion was vigorously prosecuted. On June 10, under
a heavy protecting fire, a landing of 600 marines from the Oregon, Marblehead, and Yankee was effected in Guantanamo Bay, where it had been
determined to establish a naval station.
This important and essential port was taken from the enemy, after
severe fighting, by the marines, who were thefirstorganized force of the
United States to land in Cuba.
The position so won was held despite desperate attempts to dislodge
our forces. By June 16 additional forces were landed and strongly intrenched. On June 22 the advance of the invading army under MajorGeneral Shafter landed at Daiquiri, about 15 miles east of Santiago. This
was accomplished under great difficulties, but with marvelous dispatch.
On June 23 the movement against Santiago was begun. On the 24th
the first serious engagement took place, in which the First and Tenth
Cavalry and the First United States Volunteer Cavalry, General Young's
brigade of General Wheeler's division, participated, losing heavily. By
nightfall, however, ground within 5 miles of Santiago was won.^ The
advantage was steadily increased. On July 1 a severe battle took place,
our forces gaining the outworks of Santiago; on the 2d HI Caney and San
Juan were taken after a desperate charge, and the investment of the dty
was completed. The Navy cooperated by shdling the town and the coast
forts.
On the day following this brilliant achievement of our land forces, the
3d of July, occurred the decisive naval combat of the war. The Spanish
fleet, attempting to leave the harbor, was met by the American squadron
under commaud of Commodore Sampson. In less than three hours all
the Spanish ships were destroyed, the two torpedo boats being sunk and
�1892
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
the Maria Teresa, Almirante Oquendo, Vizcaya, and GisMbal Colin driven
ashore. The Spanish admiral and over 1,300 men were taken prisoners.
While the enemy's loss of life was deplorably large, some 600 perishing,
on our side but one man was killed, on the Brooklyn, and one man seriously wounded. Although our ships were repeatedly struck, not one was
seriously injured. Where all so conspicuously distinguished themselves,
from the commanders to the gunners and the unnamed heroes in the
boiler rooms, each and all contributing toward the achievement of this
astounding victory, for which neither ancient nor modern history affords
a parallel in the completeness of the event and the marvelous disproportion of casualties, it would be invidious to single out any for especial
honor. Deserved promotion has rewarded the more conspicuous actors.
The nation's profoundest gratitude is due to all of these brave men who
by their skill and devotion in a few short hours crushed the sea power
of Spain and wrought a triumph whose decisiveness and far-reaching
consequences can scarcely be measured. Nor can we be unmindful of
the achievement" of our builders, mechanics, and artisans for their skill
in the construction of our war ships.
With the catastrophe of Santiago Spain's effort upon the ocean virtually ceased. A spasmodic effort toward the end of June to send her
Mediterraneanfleet,under Admiral Camara, to relieve Manila was abandoned, the expedition being recalled after it had passed through the Suez
Canal.
The capitulation of Santiago followed. The dty was closdy besieged
by land, while the entrance of our ships into the harbor cut off all relief
on that side. After a truce to allow of the removal of noncombatants
protracted negotiations continued from July 3 until July 15, when, under
menace of immediate assault, the preliminaries of surrender were agreed
upon. On the 17th General Shafter occupied the dty. The capitulation embraced the entire eastern end of Cuba. The number of Spanish
soldiers surrendering was 22,000, all of whom were subsequently conveyed to Spain at the charge of the United States. The story of this successful campaign is told in the report of the Secretary of War, which
will be laid before you. The individual valor of officers and soldiers was
never more strikingly shown than in the several engagements leading to
the surrender of Santiago, while the prompt movements/and successive
victories won instant and universal applause. To those who gained this
complete triumph, which established the ascendency of the United States
upon land as the fight off Santiago had fixed our supremacy on the seas,
the earnest and lasting gratitude of the nation is unsparingly due. Nor
should we alone remember the gallantry of the living; the dead claim
our tears, and our losses by battle and disease must cloud any exultation
at the result and teach us to wdgh the awful cost of war, however rightful the cause or signal the victory.
With the fall of Santiago the occupation of Puerto Rico became the
�LEY
and O istSbal Colin driven
men were taken prisoners,
large, some 600 perishing,
rooklyn, and one man seri•atedly struck, not one was
distinguished themselves,
e unnamed heroes in the
d the achievement of this
lor modern history affords
I the marvelous disproporingle out any for especial
: more conspicuous actors.
U of these brave men who
ors crushed the sea power
iiv/ness and far-reaching
r can we be unmindful of
ind artisans for their skill
effort upon the ocean vir; end of June to send her
> relieve Manila was abanid passed through the Suez
i dty was closely besieged
he harbor cut off all relief
-emoval of noncomba tants
until July 15, when, under
. of surrender were agreed
1 the dty. The capitulaThe number of Spanish
m were subsequently contes. The story of this suo
; Secretary of War, which
of officers and soldiers was
al engagements leading to
novements and successive
To those who gained this
iency of the United States
.ur supremacy,on the seas,
is unsparingly due. Nor
he living; the dead claim
must cloud any exultation
ost of war, however right.
.f Puerto Rico became the
Second Annual Message
i893
next strategic necessity. General Miles had previously been assigned to
organize an expedition for that purpose. Fortunatdy he was already at
Santiago, where he had arrived on the 1 ith of July with reenforcements
for General Shafter's army.
With these troops, consisting of 3,415 infantry and artillery, two companies of engineers, and one company of the Signal Corps, General Miles
left Guantanamo on July 21, having nine transports convoyed by the
fleet under Captain Higginson with the Massachusetts (flagship), Dixie,
Gloucester, Columbia, and Yale, the two latter carrying troops. The expedition landed at Guanica July 25, which port was entered with little
opposition. Here the fleet was joined by the Amiapolis and the Wasp,
while the Puritan and Amphitrite went to San Juan and joined the New
Orleans, which was engaged in blockading that port. The Major-General Commanding was subsequently reenforced by General Schwan's
brigade of the Third Army Corps, by General Wilson with a part of his
division, and also by General Brooke with a part of his corps, rumbering
in all 16,973 officers and men.
On July 27 he entered Ponce, one of the most important ports in the
island, from which he thereafter directed operations for the capture of
the island.
With the exception of encounters with the enemy at Guayama, Hormigueros, Coamo, and Yauco and an attack on a force landed at Cape San
Juan, there was no serious resistance. The campaign was prosecuted
with great vigor, and by the 12th of August much of the island was in
our possession and the acquisition of the remainder was only a matter of
a short time. At most of the points in the island our troops were enthusiastically welcomed. Protestations of loyalty to the flag and gratitude
for delivery from Spanish rule met our commanders at every stage. As
a potent influence toward peace the outcome of the Puerto Rican expedition was of great consequence, and generous commendation is due to
those who participated in it.
The last scene of the war was enacted at Manila, its starting place.
On August 15, after a brief assault upon the works by the land forces,
in which the squadron assisted, the capital surrendered unconditionally.
The casualties were comparatively few. By this the conqu^t of the
Philippine Islands, virtually accomplished when the Spanish cajJadty for
resistance was destroyed by Admiral Dewey's victory of the 1st of May,
was formally sealed. To General Merritt, his officers and men, for thdr
uncomplaining and devoted service and for their gallantry in action, the
nation is sincerely grateful. Their long voyage was made with singular
success, and the soldierly conduct of the men, most of whom were without previous experience in the mi^'tary service, deserves unmeasured
praise.
The total casualties in killed and wounded in the Army during the
war with Spain were: Officers killed, 23; enlisted men killed, 257; total,
�[8
9 4
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
280; officers wounded, 113; enlisted men wounded, 1,464; total, 1,577.
Of the Navy: Killed, 17; wounded, 67; died as result of wounds, 1; invalided from service, 6; total, 91.
I t will be observed that while our Navy was engaged in two great
battles and in numerous perilous undertakings in blockade and bombardment, and more than 50,000 of our troops were transported to distant
lands and were engaged in assault and siege and battle and many skirmishes in unfamiliar territory, we lost in both arms of the service a total
of 1,668 killed and wounded; and in the entire campaign by land and
sea we did not lose a gun or a flag or a transport or a ship, and, with the
exception of the crew of the Merrimac, not a soldier or sailor was taken
prisoner.
,
On August 7, forty-six days from the date of the landing of General
Shafter's army in Cuba and twenty-one days from the surrender of
Santiago, the United States troops commenced embarkation for home, and
our entire force was returned to the United States as early as August 24.
They were absent from the United States only two months.
It is fitting that I should bear testimony to the patriotism and devotion
of that large portion of our Army which, although eager to be ordered to
the post of greatest exposure, fortunately was not required outside of the
United States. They did their whole duty, and, like their comrades at
the front, have earned the gratitude of the nation. In like manner, the
officers and men of the Army and of the Navy who remained in their
departments and stations faithfully performing most important duties
connected with the war, and whose requests for assignment in the field
and at sea I was compelled to refuse because their services were indispensable here, are entitled to the highest commendation. I t is my regret
that there seems to be no provision for their suitable recognition.
In this connection it is a pleasure for me to mention in terms of cordial
appreciation the timely and useful work of the American National Red
Cross, both in relief measures preparatory to the campaigns, in sanitary
assistance at several of the camps of assemblage, and later, under the able
and experienced leadership of the president of the society, Miss Clara
Barton, on the fields of battle and in the hospitals at the front in Cuba.
Working in conjunction with the governmental authorities and under
their sanction and approval, and with the enthusiast!^ cooperation of
many patriotic women and societies in the various States, the Red Cross
has fully maintained its already high reputation for intense earnestness
and ability to exercise the noble purposes of its international organization, thus justifying the confidence and support which it has received at
the hands of the American people. To the members and officers of this
society and all who aided them in their philanthropic work the sincere
and lasting gratitude of the soldiers and the public is due and is freely
accorded.
In tracing these events we are constantly reminded of our obligations
�EY
inded, 1,464; total, 1,577.
result of wounds, 1; invavas engaged in two great
in blockade and bombardere transported to distant
and battle and many skiranns of the service a total
re campaign by land and
Drt or a ship, and, with the
soldier or sailor was taken
of the landing of General
ys from the surrender of
itnbarkation for home, and
ites as early as August 24.
two months.
ie patriotism and devotion
.ugh eager to be ordered to
lot required outside of the
nd, like their comrades at
tion. I n like manner, the
vy who remained in their
ng most important duties
•or assignment in the field
their services were indisicndation. I t is my regret
,uitable recognition,
nention in terms of cordial
e American National Red
he campaigns, in sanitary
e, and later, under the able
of the society, Miss Clara
ntals at the front in Cuba,
ital authorities and under
athusiastic cooperation of
ious States, the Red Cross
ion for intense earnestness
its international organizart which it has received at
embers and officers of this
nthropic work the sincere
public is due and is freely
etninded of our obligations
Second Annual
Message
to the Divine Master for His watchful care over us and His safe guidance, for which the nation makes reverent acknowledgment and offers
humble prayer for the continuance of His favor.
The annihilation of Admiral Cervera's fleet, followed by the capitulation of Santiago, having brought to the Spanish Government a realizing
sense of the hopelessness of continuing a struggle now become wholly
unequal, it made overtures of peace through the French ambassador,
who, with the assent of his Government, had acted as the friendly represenutive of Spanish interests during the war. On the 26th of July
M . Cambon presented a communication signed by the Duke of Almod6var,
the Spanish minister of state, inviting the United States to state the
terms upon which it would be willing to make peace. On the 30th
of July, by a communication addressed to the Duke of Almod6var and
handed to M. Cambon, the terms of this Government were announced
substantially as in the protocol afterwards signed. On the ijpth of
August the Spanish reply, dated August 7, was handed by M. Cambon
to the Secretary of State. I t accepted unconditionally the terms imposed
as to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and an island of the Ladrones group, but appeared to seek to introduce inadmissible reservations in regard to our
demand as to the Philippine Islands. Conceiving that discussion on this
point could neithei be practical nor profitable, I directed that in order to
avoid misunderstanding the matter should be forthwith closed by proposing the embodiment in a formal protocol of the terms upon which the
negotiations for peace were to be undertaken. The vague and inexplicit
suggestions of the Spanish note could not be accepted, the only reply
being to present as a virtual ultimatum a draft of protocol embodying
the precise terms tendered to Spain in our note of July 30, with added
stipulations of detail as to the appointment of commissioners to arrange
for the evacuation of the Spanish Antilles. On August 12 M. Cambon
announced his receipt of full powers to sign the protocol so submitted.
Accordingly, on the afternoon of August 12, M. Cambon, as the plenipotentiary of Spain, and the Secretary of State, as the plenipotentiary of
the United States, signed a protocol providing—
ARTICLE I . Spain will relinquish all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba.
ART. I I . Spain will cede to the United States the island of Puerto RicJ^nd other
islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, and also an isliftid in the
Ladrones to be selected by the United States.
ART. I I I . The United States will occupy and hold the city, bay, and harbor of
Manila pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace which shall determine the con
trol, disposition, and government of the Philippines.
The fourth article provided for the appointment of joint commissions
on the part of the United States and Spain, to meet in Havana and San
Juan, respectively, f6r the purpose of arranging and carrying out the
details of the stipulated evacuation of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and other Spanish islands in the West Indies.
�1896
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
The fifth article provided for the appointment of not more than five
commissioners on each side, to meet at Paris not later than October 1
and to proceed to the negotiation and conclusion of a treaty of peace,
subject to ratification according to the respective constitutional forms of
the two countries.
The sixth and last article provided that upon the signature of the protocol hostilities between the two countries should be suspended and that
notice to that effect should be given as soon as possible by each Government to the commanders of its military and naval forces.
Immediately upon the conclusion of the protocol I issued a proclamation, of August 12, suspending hostilities on the part of the United States.
The necessary orders to that end were at once given by telegraph. The
blockade of the ports of Cuba and San Juan de Puerto Rico was in like
manner raised. On the 18th of August the muster out of 100,000 '
volunteers, or as near that number as was found to be practicable, was
ordered.
On the 1st of December 101,165 officers and men had been mustered
out and discharged from the service, and 9,002 more will be mustered
out by the 10th of this month; also a corresponding number of general if ^ ^ ,
and general staff officers have been honorably discharged the service.
'<; feSjdC-.
The military commissions to superintend the evacuation of Cuba, Puerto
f|b;.
Rico, and the adjacent islands were forthwith appointed—for Cuba, MajorGeneral James F. Wade, Rear-Admiral William T. Sampson, Major-Gen- . Z ^ ^ *
eral Matthew C. Butler; for Puerto Rico, Maj or-General John R. Brooke, • ' ^ ^ i Rear-Admiral Winfield S. Schley, Brigadier-General William W. Gor'.
don—who soon afterwards met the Spanish commissioners at Havana .<^/'-and San Juan, respectively. The Puerto Rican Joint Commission speedily
accomplished its task, and by the 18th of October the evacuation of the- ylfC't
island was completed. The United States flag was raised over the island " •.
r
at noon on that day. The administration of its affairs has been provisionally intrusted to a military governor until the Congress shall otherwise
provide. The Cuban Joint Commission has not yet terminated its labors.
Owing to the difficulties in the way of removing the large numbers of
Spanish troops still in Cuba, the evacuation can not be completed before
the 1st of January next.
^
Pursuant to the fifth article of the protocol, I appointed'William R ^ f
Day, lately Secretary of State; Cushman K . Davis, William P. Frye, a ^
George Gray, Senators of the United States, and Whitelaw Reid to be
the peace commissioners on the part of the United States. Proceeding
in due season to Paris, they there met on the 1st of October five commissioners similarly appointed on the part of Spain. Their negotiations
have made hopeful progress, so that I trust soon to be able to lay a
definitive treaty of peace before the Senate, with a review of the steps
leading to its signature.
I do not discuss at this time the government or the future of the new
?
1
yf:
�Second Annual Message
E Y
at of not more than five
not later than October 1
;on of a treaty of peace,
e constitutional forms of
the signature of the proId be suspended and that
possible by each Governal forces.
ocol I issued a proclamapart of the United States.
;iven by telegraph. The
Puerto Rico was in like
muster out of 100,000
d to be practicable, was
men had been mustered
2 more will be mustered
iding number of general
scharged the service. •acuation of Cuba, Puerto ,
>ointed—for Cuba, Major-, :
T. Sampson, Major-Gen-' .
General John R. Brooke, •;•[
eneral William W. Gor-;*
immissioners at Havana
Dtnt Commission speedily
«r the evacuation of the. ;
vas raised over the island^
flairs has been provisio^'
Congress shall otherwise^
vet terminated its labors,^
ng the large numbers of«
not be completed before
T'i
;
I appointed William R.;
•is, Wilham P. Frye, and
nd Whitelaw Reid to he^
ited States. Proceeding
: of October five commis-'^
ain. Their negotiations^
oon to be able to lay a
ith a review of the steps
or the future of the new
1897
possessions which will come to us as the result of the war with Spain.
Such discussion will be appropriate after the treaty of peace shall be ratified. In the meantime and until the Congress has legislated otherwise it
will be my duty to continue the military governments which have existed
since our occupation and give to the people security in life and property
and encouragement under a just and beneficent rule.
As soon as we are in possession of Cuba and have pacified the island it
will be necessary to give aid and direction to its people to form a government for themselves. This should be undertaken at the earliest moment
consistent with safety and assured success. It is important that our relations with this people shall be of the most friendly character and our
commercial relations close and reciprocal. It should be our duty to assist
in every proper way to build ttp the waste: places or the island, encourage
the Industry of the people, and assist them to form a govermnent which
shall be free and independent, thus realizing the best aspirations of the
Cuban people.
Spanish rule must be replaced by a just, benevolent, and humane government, created by the people of Cuba, capable of performing all international obligations, and which shall encourage thrift, industry, and
prosperity and promote peace and good will among all of the inhabitants,
whatever may have been their relations in the past. Neither revenge
nor passion should have a place in the new government Until there
is complete tranquiUity in the island and a stable government inaugurated military occupation will be continued.
With the one exception of the rupture with Spain, the intercourse of
the United States with the great family of nations has been marked with
cordiality, and the dose of the eventful yearfindsmost of the issues that
necessarily arise in the complex relations of sovereign states adjusted or
presenting no serious obstade to a just and honorable solution by amicable agreement.
A long unsettled dispute as to the extended boundary between the
Argentine Republic and Chile, stretching along the Andean crests from
the southern border of the Atacama Desert to Magellan Straits, nearly a
third of the length of the South American continent., assumed an acute
stage in the early part of the year, and afforded to this G^gernment
occasion to express the hope that the resort to arbitration, alrehdy contemplated by existing conventions between the parties, might prevail
despite the grave difficulties arising in its application. I am happy to
say that arrangements to this end have been perfected, the questions
of fact upon which the respective commissioners were unable to agree
being in course of reference to Her Britannic Majesty for determination.
A residual difference touching the northern boundary line across the
Atacama Desert, for which existing treaties provided no adequate adjustment, bids fair to be settled in like manner by a joint commission, upon
which the United States minister at Buenos Ayres has been invited to
�tggg
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
serve as umpire in the last resort.
I have found occasion to approach the Argentine Government with a
view to removing differences of rate charges imposed upon the cables of
an American corporation in the transmission between Buenos Ayres and
the dties of Uruguay and Brazil of through messages passing from and
to the United States. Although the matter is complicated by exdusive
concessions by Uruguay anc Brazil to fordgn companies, there is strong
hope that a good understanding will be reached and that the important
channels of commerdal communication between the United States and
the Atlantic dties of South America may be freed from an almost prohibitory discrimination.
In thisrelationI may be permitted to express my sense of the fitness
ol an International agreement whereby the interchange of messages over
connecting cables may be regulated on a fair basis of uniformity. The
world has seen the postal system devdoped from a congeries of independent and exclusive services into a well-ordered union, of which all countries enjoy the manifold benefits. It would be strange were the nations
not in time brought to realize that modern dvilization, which owes so
much of its progress to the annihilation of space by the electric force,
demands that this all-important means of communication be a heriuge
of all peoples, to be administered and regulated in their common behoof.
A step in this direction was taken when the international convention of
1884 for the protection of submarine cables was'signed, and the day is, I
trust, not far distant when this medium for the transmission of thought
from land to land may be brought within the domain of international
concert as completely as is the material carriage of commerce and correspondence upon the face of the waters that divide them.
The claim of Thomas Jefferson Page against Argentina, which has
been pending many yean,, has been adjusted. The sum awarded by the
Congress of Argentina was $4,242.35.
The sympathy of the American people has justly been offered to the
ruler and the people of Austria-Hungary by reason of the affliction that
has latdy befallen them in the assassination of the Empress-Queen of
that historic realm.
On the 10th of September, 1897, a conflict took place a^lvattimer, Pa.,
between a body of striking miners and the sheriff of Luzerne County and
his deputies, in which 22 miners were killed and 44 wounded, of whom
10 of the killed and 12 of the wounded were Austrian and Hungarian
subjects. This deplorable event naturally aroused the solidtude of the
Austro-Hungarian Government, which, on the assumption that the killing and wounding involved the unjustifiable misuse of authority, claimed
reparation for the sufferers. Apart from the searching investigation and
peremptory action of the authorities of Pennsylvania, the Federal Executive took appropriate steps to learn the merits of the case, in order to be
in a position to meet the urgent complaint of a friendly power. The
�E V
Second Annual Message
ntine Government with a
iposed upon the cables of
tween Buenos Ayres and
essages passing from and
complicated by exdusive
ompanies, there is strong
i and that the important
n the United States and
reed from an almost pro& my sense of the fitness
change of messages over
)asis of uniformity. The
1 a congeries of independunion, of which all counstrange were the nations
/ilization, which owes so
ice by the dectric force,
munication be a heritage
in their common behoof, •..vrS
temational convention of
; signed, and the day is, I
transmission of thought
domain of international
je of commerce and carvide them.
st Argentina, which has
The sum awarded by the
r
istly been offered to the
ison of the affliction that
)f the Empress-Queen <rf
k place at Lattimer, Pa.,
ff of Luzerne County and,
id 44 wounded, of whom
Austrian and Hungarian,
sed the solidtude of the
issumption that the killuse of authority, claimed
rching investigation and
ania, the Federal Execuf the case, in order to be
a friendly power. The
3
1899
sheriff and his deputies, having been indicted for murder, were tried, and
acquitted, after protracted proceedings and the hearing of hundreds of
witnesses, on the ground that the killing was in the line of thdr official
duty to uphold law and preserve public order in the State. A representative of the Department of Justice attended the trial and reported
its course fully. With all the facts in its possession, this Government
expects to reach a harmonious understanding on the subject with that of
Austria-Hungary, notwithstanding the renewed claim of the latter, after
learning the result of the trial, for indemnity for its injured subjects.
Despite the brief time allotted for preparation, the exhibits of this
country at the Universal Exposition at Brussds in 1897 enjoyed the singular distinction of a larger proportion of awards, having regard to the
number and classes of articles entered than those d other countries.
The worth of such a result in making known our national capacity to
supply the world's markets is obvious.
Exhibitions of this international character are becoming more frequent
as the exchanges of commercial countries grow more intimate and varied.
Hardly a year passes that this Government is not invited to national
partidpation at some important foreign center, but often on too short
notice to permit of recourse to Congress for the power and means to do
so. My predecessors have suggested the advisability of providing by a
general enactment and a standing appropriation for accepting such invitations and for representation of this country by a commission. This plan
has my cordial approval.
I trust that the Belgian restrictions on the importation of cattle from
the United States, originally adopted as a sanitary precaution, will at an
early day be relaxed as to their present features of hardship and discrimination, so as to admit live cattle under due regulation of their slaughter
after landing. I am hopeful, too, of favorable change in the Belgian
treatment of our preserved and salted meats. The growth of direct trade
between the two countries, not alone for Belgian consumption and Belgian
products, but by way of transit from and to other continental states, has
been both encouraging and benefidal. No effort will be spared to enlarge
its advantages by seeking the removal of needless impediments and by
arrangements for increased commerdal exchanges.
^
The year's events in Central America deserve more than passing
mention.
A menacing rupture between Costa Rica and Nicaragua was happily
composed by the signature of a convention between the parties, with
the concurrence of the Guatemalan representative as a mediator, the act
being negotiated and signed on board the United States steamer Alert,
then lying in Central American waters. It is bdieved that the good
offices of our envoy and of the commander of that vessel contributed
toward this gratifying outcome.
In my last annual message the situation was presented with respect to
�igoo
WILLIAM
r
MCKINLEY
the diplomatic representation of this Government in Central America
created by the association of Nicaragua, Honduras, and Salvador under
the title of the Greater Republic of Central America, and the delegation
of their international functions to the Diet thereof. While the representative character of the Diet was recognized by my predecessor and
has been confirmed during my Administration by receiving its accredited envoy and granting exequaturs to consuls commissioned under its
authority, that recognition was qualified by the distinct understanding
that the responsibility of each of the component sovereign Republics
toward the United States remained wholly unaffected.
This proviso was needful inasmuch as the compact of the three Republics was at the outset an association whereby certain representative functions were delegated to a tripartite commission rather than a federation
possessing centralized powers of government and administration. In
this view of their relation and of the relation of the United States to
the several Republics, a change in the representation of this country ia
Central America was neither recommended by the Executive nor initiated
by Congress, thus leaving one of our envoys accredited, as heretofore,
separately to two States of the Greater Republic, Nicaragua and Salvador,
and to a third State, Costa Rica, which was not a party to the compact,
while our other envoy was similarly accredited to a union State, Honduras, and a nonunion State, Guatemala. The result has been that the
one has presented credentials only to the President of Costa Rica, the*
other having been received only by the Government of Guatemala.
••'•A
Subsequently the three associated Republics entered into negotiations
for taking the steps forecast in the original compact A convention ci
their delegates framed for them a federal constitution under the name of
the United States of Central America, and provided for a central federal
government and legislature. Upon ratification by the constituent States,
the ist of November last was fixed for the new system to go into opera•i •
tion. Within a few weeks thereafter the plan was severely tested by
revolutionary movements arising, with a consequent demand for unity of
action on the part of the military power of the federal States to suppress
them. Under this strain the new union seems to have been weakened
through the withdrawal of its more important members. Hys Go
ment was not officially advised of the installation of the federation
has maintained an attitude of friendly expectancy, while in no wise relinquishing the position held from the outset that the responsibilities of
the several States toward us remained unaltered by their tentative relations among themselves.
The Nicsjagua Canal Commission, under the chairmanship of RearAdmiral John G. Walker, appointed July 24,1897, under the authority
of a provision in the sundry civil act of June 4 of that year, has nearly
completed its labors, and the results of its exhaustive inquiry into the
proper route, the feasibihty, and the cost of construction of an interoceank
m
�Second Annual Message
E Y
ent in Central America
tras, and Salvador under
erica, and the delegation
ireof. While the repreby my predecessor and
by receiving its accredcommissicned under its
e distinct understanding
-nt sovereign Republics
ected.
ipact of the three Repubtain representative funcrather than a federation
and administration. In
of the United States to
ation of this country ia
e Executive nor initiated
ccredited, as heretofore,
Nicaragua and Salvador,
a party to the compact,
to a union State, Honresult has been that the
;ident of Costa Rica, the
tent of Guatemala,
entered into negotiations
npact. A convention of
ution under the name of
ided for a central federal;
^y the constituent States,
system to go into opera- |
i was severely tested by
uent demand for unity of
ederal States to suppresB
to have been weakened _
nembers. This Govern- ~
in of the federation and^J
icy, while in no wise rerj
iat the responsibilities
1 by their tentative rela^
L
e chairmanship of Rear-'l
ig-j, under the authority
of that year, has nearly
laustive inquiry into the '-action of an interoceank:
1901
canal by a Nicaraguan route will be laid before you. In the performance
of its task the commission received all possible courtesy and assistance
from the Governments of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, which thus testified
their appreciation of the importance of giving a speedy and practical outcome to the great project that has for so many years engrossed the attention of the respective countries.
As the scope of the recent inquiry embraced the whole subject, with the
aim of making plans and surveys for a canal by the most convenient
route, it necessarily included a review of the results of previous surveys
and plans, and in particular those adopted by the Maritime Canal Company under its existing concessions from Nicaragua and Costa Rica, so
that to this extent those grants necessarily hold as essential a part in the
deliberations and conclusions of the Canal Commission as they have held
and must needs hold in the discussion of the matter by the Congress.
Under these circumstances and in view of overtures made to the Governments of Nicaragua and Costa Rica by other parties for a new canal
concession predicated on the assumed approaching lapse of the contracts
of the Maritime Canal Company with those States, I have not hesitated
to express my conviction that considerations of expediency and international policy as between the several governments interested in the
construction and control of an interoceanic canal by this route require
the maintenance of the sta/us quo until the Canal Commission shall have
reported and the United States Congress shall have had the opportunity
to passfinallyupon the whole matter during the present session, without
prejudice by reason of any change in the existing-conditions.
Nevertheless, it appears that the Government of Nicaragua, as one of
its last sovereign acts before merging its powers in those of the newly
formed United States of Central America, has granted an optional concession to another association, to become effective on the expiration of
the present grant. It does not appear what surveys have been made or
what route is proposed under this contingent grant, so that an examination of the feasibility of its plans is necessarily not embraced in the report
of the Canal Commission. All these circumstances suggest the urgency
of some definite action by the Congress at this session if the labors of the
past are to be utilized and the linking of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
by a practical waterway is to be realized. That the construction of such
a maritime highway is now more than ever indispensable to that intimate and ready intercommunication between our eastern and western
seaboards demanded by the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands and the
prospective expansion of our influence and commerce in the Pacific, and
that our national policy now more imperatively than ever calls for its
control by this Government, are propositions which I doubt not the Congress will duly appreciate and wisely act upon.
A convention providing for the revival of the late United States and
Chilean Claims Commission and the consideration of claims which were
�1902
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
duly presented to the late commissioo, but not considered because of the
expiration of the time limited for the duration of the commission, was
signed May 24, 1897, and has remained unacted upon by the Senate.
The term therein fixed for effecting the exchange of ratifications having
elapsed, the convention falls unless the time be extended by amendment,
which I am endeavoring to bring about, with the friendly concurrence of
the Chilean Government.
The United States has not been an indifferent spectator of the extraordinary events transpiring in the Chinese Empire, whereby portions of
its maritime provinces are passing under the control of various European
powers; but the prospect that the vast commerce which the energy of our
citizens and the necessity of our staple productions for Chinese uses has
built up in those regions may not be prejudiced through any exdusive
treatment by the new occupants has obviated the need of our country
becoming an actor in the scene. Our position among nations, having
a large Pacific coast and a constantly expanding direct trade with the
farther Orient, gives us the equitable claim to consideration and friendly
treatment in this regard, and it will be my aim to subserve our large
interests in that quarter by all means appropriate to the constant policy
of our Government. The territories of Kiao-chow, of Wei-hai-wd, and
of Port Arthur and Talienwan, leased to Germany, Great Britain, aud
Russia, respectively, for terms of years, will, it is announced, be open to
international commerce during such alien occupation; and if no discriminating treatment of American dtizens and their trade be found to exist
or be hereafter devdoped, the desire of this Government would appear to
be realized.
In this rdation, as showing the volume and value of our exchanges
with China and the peculiarly favorable conditions which exist for their
expansion in the normal course of trade, I refer to the communication
addressed to the Speaker of the House of Representatives by the Secretary of the Treasury on the 14th of last June, with its accompanying
letter of the Secretary of State, recommending an appropriation for a
commission to study the commerdal and industrial conditions in the Chinese Empire and report as to the opportunities for and obstacles to the
enlargement of markets in China for the raw products a&d manufactures
of the United States. Action was not taken thereon during the late session. I cordially urge that the recommendation recdve at your hands
the consideration which its importance and timeliness merit.
Meanwhile there may be just ground for disquietude in view of the
unrest and revival of the old sentiment of opposition and prejudice to
alien people which pervades certain of the Chinese provinces. As in the
case of the attacks upon our citizens in Szechuen and at Kutien in 1895,
the United States minister has been instructed to secure the fullest measure of protection, both loci.1 and imperial, for any menaced American
interests, and to demand, in case of lawless injury to person or property,
�LEY
Second Annual
considered because of the
>n of the commission, was
:ted upon by the Senate,
age of ratifications having
extended by amendment,
he friendly concurrence of
t spectator of the extraorpire, whereby portions of
ntrol of various European
x which the energy of our
tions for Chinese uses has
ed through any exclusive
1 the need of our country
m among nations, having
ling direct trade with the
consideration and friendly
im to subserve our large
ate to the constant policy
chow, of Wei-hai-wei, and
•many, Great Britain, and
is announced, be open to
pation; and if no discrimiir trade be found to exist
vemment would appear to,
•;
»
.
1 value of our exchange||
tions which exist for
fer to the communicat
.presentatives by the
e, with its accompanj
g an appropriation for a |
trial conditions in the Ct
s for and obstacles
•roducts and manufactt
icreon during the late :
on receive at your
leliness^merit.
isquietude in,view of thi
position and prejudice to
icse provinces. As in the
en and at Kutien in 1895,
to secure the fullest measr any menaced American
ury to person or property,
Message
'903
instant reparation appropriate to the case. War ships have been stationed at Tientsin for more ready observation of the disorders which
have invaded even the Chinese capital, so as to be in a position to act
should need arise, while a guard of marines has been sent to Peking to
afford the minister the same measure of authoritative protection as the
representatives of other nations have been constrained to employ.
Followiug dose upon the rendition of the award of my predecessor
as arbitrator of the claim of the Italian subject Cerruti against the Republic of Colombia, differences arose between the parties to the arbitration in regard to the scope and extension of the award, of which certain
articles were contested by Colombia, while Italy daimed their literal fulfillment. The award having been made by the President of the United
States, as an act of friendly consideration and with the sole view to an
impartial composition of the matter in dispute, I could not but feel deep
concern at such a miscarriage, and while unable to accept the Colombian
theory that I , in my official capacity, possessed continuing functions as
arbitrator, with power to interpret or revise the terms of the award, my
best efforts were lent to bring the parties to a harmonious agreement as
to the execution of its provisions.
A naval demonstration by Italy resulted in an engagement to pay the
liabilities claimed upon thdr ascertainment; but this apparent disposition
of the controversy was followed by a rupture of diplomatic intercourse
between Colombia and Italy, which still continues, although, fortunately,
without acute symptoms having supervened. Notwithstanding this, efforts are reported to be continuing for the ascertainment of Colombia's
contingent liability on account of Cerruti's debts under the fifth article of
the award.
A daim of an American citizen against the Dominican Republic for a
public bridge over the Ozama River, which has been in diplomatic controversy for several years, has been settled by expert arbitration and an
award in favor of the claimant amounting to about $90,000. I t , however,
remains unpaid, despite urgent demands for its settlement according to
the terms of the compact.
There is now every prospect that the partidpation of the United States
in the Universal Exposition to be held in Paris in 1900 will be <^n a scale
commensurate with the advanced position held by our produfcts and
industries in the world's chief marts.
The preliminary report of Mr. Moses P. Handy, who, under the act
approved July 19, 1897, was appointed spedal commissioner with a view
to securing all attainable infonnation necessary to a full and complete
understanding by Congress in regard to the partidpation of this Government in the Paris Exposition, was laid before you by my message of
December 6, 1897, and showed the large opportunities opened to make
known our national progress in arts, science, and manufactures, as well
as the urgent need of immediate and adequate provision to enable due
�1904
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
advantage thereof to be taken. Mr. Handy's death soon afterwards
rendered it necessary for another to take up and complete his unfinished
work, and on January 11 last Mr. Thomas W. Cridler, Third Assistant
Secretary of State, was designated to fulfill that task. His report was
laid before you by my message of June 14, 1898, with the gratifying
result of awakening renewed interest in the projected display. By a
provision in the sundry civil appropriation act of July 1, 1898, a sum not
to exceed $650,000 was allotted for the organization of a commission
to care for the proper preparation and installation of American exhibits and for the display of suitable exhibits by the several Executive
Departments, particularly by the Department of Agriculture, the Fish
Commission, and the Smithsonian Institution, in representation of 'the
Government of the United States.
Pursuant to that enactment I appointed Mr. Ferdinand W. Peck, of
Chicago, commissioner-general, with an assistant commissioner-general
and a secretary. Mr. Peck at once proceeded to Paris, where his success
in enlarging the scope and variety of the United States exhibit has been
most gratifying. Notwithstanding the comparatively limited area of the
exposition site—less than one-half that of the World's Fair at Chicago—
the space assigned to the United States has been increased from the
absolute allotment of 157,403 square feet reported by Mr. Handy to some
202,000 square feet, with corresponding augmentation of the field for a
truly characteristic representation of the various important branches of
our country's development. Mr. Peck's report will be laid before you.
In my judgment its recommendations will call for your early consideration, especially as regards an increase of the appropriation to at least one
million dollars in all, so that not only may the assigned space be fully
taken up by the best possible exhibits in every class, but the preparation
and installation be on so perfect a scale as to rank among the first i r that
unparalleled competition of artistic and inventive production, and thus
counterbalance the disadvantage with which we start as compared with
other countries whose appropriations are on a more generous scale and
whose preparations are in a state of much greater forwardness thai our
own.
Where our artisans have the admitted capacity to excel, where our
inventive genius has initiated many, of the grandest disqoveries of these
later days of the century, and where the native resources of our land are
as limitless as they are valuable to supply the world's needs, it is our
province, as it should be our earnest care, to lead in the march of human
progress, and not rest content with any secondary place. Moreover, if
this be due to ourselves, it is no less due to the great French nation
whose guests we become, and which has in so many ways testified its
wish and hope that our participation shall befit the place the two peoples
have won in the field of universal development.
The commercial arrangement made with France on the 28th of May,
�MLEY
y's death soon afterwards
md complete his unfinished
V. Cridler, Third Assistant
that task. His report was
, 1898, with the gratifying
2 projected display. By a
t of July 1, 1898, a sum not
^mization of a commission
llation of American exhibby the several Executive
t of Agriculture, the Fish
J, in representation of the
Mr. Ferdinand W. Peck, of
istant commissioner-general
I to Paris, where his success
ited States exhibit has been
aratively limited area of the
; World's Fair at Chicago—
is been increased from the
>rted by Mr. Handy to some
mentation of the field for a
-ious important branches of
ort will be laid before you.
II for your early consideraippropriation to at least one
the assigned space be fully
-y class, but the preparation
rank among the first i r that
:ntive production, and thus
we start as compared with
a more generous scale and
eater forwardness than our
parity to excel, where our
randest discoveries of these
. e resources of our land are
he world's needs, it is our
ead in the march of human
ndary place. Moreover, if
o the great French nation
so many ways testified its
t the place the two peoples
it.
ranee on the 28th of May,
Second Annual
Message
1905
1898, under the provision; of section 3 of the tariff act of 1897, went
into effect on the ist day of June following. I t has relieved a portion of
our export trade from serious embarrassment. Further negotiations are
now pending under section 4 of the same act with a view to the increase
of trade between the two countries to their mutual advantage. Negotiations with other governments, in part interrupted by the war with Spain,
are in progress under both sections of the tariff act. I hope to be able
to announce some of the results of these negotiations during the present
session of Congress.
Negotiations to the same end with Germany have been set on foot.
Meanwhile uo effort has been relaxed to convince the Imperial Government of the thoroughness of our inspection of pork products for exportation, and it is trusted that the efficient administration of this measure by
the Department of Agriculture will be recognized as a guaranty of the
healthfulness of the food staples we send abroad to countries where their
use is large and necessary.
I transmitted to the Senate on the 10th of February last information touching the prohibition against the importation of fresh fruits from
this country, which had then recently been decreed by Germany on the
ground of danger of disseminating the San Jos6 scale insect This precautionary measure was justified by Germany on the score of the drastic
steps taken in several States of the Union against the spread of the pest,
the elaborate reports of the Department of Agriculture being put in
evidence to jhow the danger to German fruit-growing interests should
the scale obtain a lodgment in that country. Temporary relief was
afforded in the case ot large consignments of fruit then on the way by
inspection and admission when found noninfected. Later the prohibition was extended to dried fruits of every kind, but was relaxed so as to
apply only to unpeeled fruit and fruit waste. As was to be expected,
the alarm reached to other countries, and Switzerland has adopted a similar inhibition. Efforts are in progress to induce the German and Swiss
Governments to relax the prohibition in favor of dried fruits shown to
have been cured under circumstances rendering the existence of animal
life impossible.
Our relations with Great Britain have continued on the mo^f friendly
footing. Assenting to our request, the protection of Americans |nd their
interests in Spanish jurisdiction was assumed by the diplomatic and consular representatives of Great Britain, who fulfilled their delicate and
arduous trust with tact and zeal, eliciting high commendation. I may
be allowed to make fitting allusion to the instance of Mr. Ramsden, Her
Majesty's consul at Santiago de Cuba, whose untimely death after distinguished service and untiring effort during the siege of that city was
sincerely lamented.
In the early part of April last, pursuant to a request made at the instance
of the Secretary of State by the British ambassador at this capital, the
�i vyo Li
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
Canadian government granted facilities for the passage of four United
States revenue cutters from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic coast by
way of the Canadian canals and the St. Lawrence River. The vessels
had reached Lake Ontario and were there awaiting the opening of navigation when war was declared between the United States and Spain.
Her Majesty's Government thereupon, by a communication of the latter
part of April, seated that the permission granted before the outbreak of
hostilities would not be withdrawn provided the United States Govern
ment gave assurance that the vessels in question would proceed direct to
a United States port without engaging in any hostile operation. This
Government promptly agreed to the stipulated condition, it being understood that the vessels would not be prohibited from resisting any hostile
attack.
It will give me especial satisfaction if I shall be authorized to communicate to you a favorable conclusion of the pending negotiations with
Great Britain in respect to the Dominion of Canada. It is the earnest
wish of this Government to remove all sources of discord and irritation
in our relations with the neighboring Dominion. The trade between the
two countries is constantly increasing, and it is important to both countries that all reasonable facilities should be granted for its development.
The Government of Greece strongly urges the onerousness of the duty
here imposed upon the currants of that country, amounting to 100 per
cent or more of their market value. This fruit is stated to be exclusively
a Greek product, not coming into competition with any domestic product.
The question of reciprocal commercial relations with Greece, including
the restoration of currants to the free list, is under consideration.
The long-standing claim of Bernard Campbell for damages for injuries sustained from a violent assault committed against him by military
authorities in the island of Haiti has been settled by the agreement of
that Republic to pay him $10,000 in American gold. Of this sum $5,000
has already been paid. It is hoped that other pending claims of American citizens against that Republic may be amicably adjusted.
Pending the consideration by the Senate of the treaty signed June 16,
1897, by the plenipotentiaries of the United States and of the Republic
of Hawaii, providing for the annexation of the islands, a joint resolution
to accomplish the same purpose by accepting the offered cession and incorporating the ceded territory into the Union was adoptea^by the Congress and approved July 7, 1898. I thereupon directed the United States
steamship Philadelphia to convey Rear-Admiral Miller to Honolulu, and
intrusted to his hands this important legislative act, to be delivered to
the President of the Republic of Hawaii, with whom the Admiral and the
United States minister were authorized to make appropriate arrangements for transferring the sovereignty of the islands to the United
States. This was simply but impressively accomplished on the 12th of
August last by the delivery of a certified copy of the resolution to Presi-
�MCKINLEY
lities for the passage of four United
reat Lakes to the Atlantic coast by
ie St. Lawrence River. The vessels
there awaiting the opening of navitveen the United States and Spain,
on, by a communication of the latter
sion granted before the outbreak of
provided the United States Governi in question would proceed direct to
ing in any hostile operation. This
stipulated coudition, it being under>rohibited from resisting any hostile
on if I shall be authorized to comm of the pending negotiations with
nion of Canada. It is the earnest
ill sources of discord and irritation
Dominion. The trade between the
and it is important to both counid be granted for its development,
urges the onerousness of the duty
it country, amounting to 100 per
lis fruit is stated to be exclusively
tition with any domestic product,
relations with Greece, including
t, is under consideration.
Campbell for damages for injuimitted against him by military
en settled by the agreement of
rican gold. Of this sum $5,000
other pending claims of Ameriamicably adjusted,
e of the treaty signed June 16,
ed States and' of the Republic
the islands, a joint resolution
ng the offered cession and inlion was adopted by the Conon directed the United States
niral Miller to Honolulu, and
lative act, to be delivered to
h whom the Admiral and the
make appropriate arrangethe islands to the United
ccomplished on the 12th of
•y of the resolution to Presi-
Second Annual
Message
1907
dent Dole, who thereupon yielded up to the representative of the Government of the United States the sovereignty and public property of the
Hawaiian Islands.
Pursuant to the terms of the joint resolution and in exercise of the
authority thereby conferred upon me, I directed that the dvil, judicial,
and military powers theretofore exerdsed by the officers of the Government of the Republic of Hawaii should continue to be exercised by those
officers until 'Congress shall provide a government for the incorporated
territory, subject to my power to remove such officers and to fill vacancies. The President, officers, and troops of the Republic thereupon took
the oath of allegiance to the United States, thus providing for the uninterrupted continuance of all the administrative and munidpal functions
of the annexed territory until Congress shall otherwise enact
Following the further provision of the joint resolution, I appointed
the Hons. Shelby M. Cullom, of Illinois, John T. Morgan, of Alabama,
Robert R. Hitt, of Illinois, Sanford B. Dole, of Hawaii, and Walter F.
Frear, of Hawaii, as commissioners to confer and recommend to Congress such legislation concerning the Hawaiian Islands as they should
deem necessary or proper. The commissioners having fulfilled the mission confided to them, their report will be laid before you at an early day.
It is believed that their recommendations will have the earnest consideration due to the magnitude of the responsibility resting upon you to give
such shape to the relationship of those mid-Pacific lauds to our home
Union as will benefit both in the highest degree, realizing the aspirations
of the community that has cast its lot with us and elected to share our
political heritage, while at the same time justifying the foresight of those
who for three-quarters of a century have looked to the assimilation of
Hawaii as a natural and inevitable consummation, in harmibny with our
needs and in fulfillment of our cherished traditions.
The questions heretofore pending between Hawaii and Japan growing
out of the alleged mistreatment of Japanese treaty immigrants were, I am
pleased to say, adjusted before the act of transfer by the payment of a
reasonable indemnity to the Government of Japan.
Under the provisions of the joint resolution, the existing customs
relations^ the Hawaiian Islands with the United States and with other
countries remain unchanged until legislation shall otherwise provide.
The consuls of Hawaii here and in foreign countries continue to fulfill
their commercial agencies, while the United States consulate at Honolulu
is maintained for all appropriate services pertaining to trade and the
revenue. I t would be desirable that all foreign consuls in the I^awaiian
Islands should receive new exequaturs from this Government.
The attention of Congress is called to the fact that, our consular offices
having ceased to exist in Hawaii and being about to cease in other
countries coming under the sovereignty of the United States, the provisions for the relief and transportation of destitute American seamen in
�igoS
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
these countries under our consular regulations will in consequence terminate. I t is proper, therefore, that new legislation should be enacted
upon this subject in order to meet the changed conditions.
The interpretation of certain provisions of the extradition convention
of December n , 1861, has been at various times the occasion of controversy with the Government of Mexico. An acute difference arose in the
case of the Mexican demand for the dehvery of Jesus Guerra, who, having led a marauding expedition near the border with the proclaimed
purpose of initialing an insurrection against President Diaz, escaped into
Texas. Extradition was refused on the ground that the alleged offense
was political in its character, and therefore came within the treaty proviso of ronsurrender. The Mexican contention was that the exception only related to purely politkai ofitnses, and that as Guerra's acts
were admixed with One common crime of murder, arson, kidnaping, and
robbery, the option of nondelivery became void, a position which this
Government was unable to admit in view of the received international
doctrine and practice in the matter. The Mexican Government, in view
of this, gave notice January 24, 1S98, of the termination of the convention, to take effect twelve months from that date, at the same time inviting the conclusion of a new convention, toward which negotiations are
on foot.
In this relation I may refer to the necessity of some amendment of our
existing extradition statute. I t is a common stipulation of such treaties
that neither party shall be bound to give up its own citizens, with the
added proviso in one of our treaties, that with Japan, that it may surrender if it see fit. I t is held in this country by an almost uniform course
of decisions that where a treaty negatives the obligation to surrender the
President is not invested with legal authority to act. The conferment of
such authority would be in the line of that sound morality which shrinks
from affording secure asylum to the author of a heinous crime. Again,
statutory provision might well be made for what is styled extradition by
way of transit, whereby a fugitive surrendered by one foreign government
to another may be conveyed across the territory of the Ignited States t©
the jurisdiction of the demanding state. A recommendation in this behalf made in the President's message of 1886 was not acted upon. The
matter is presented for your consideration.
The problem of the Mexican free zone has been often discussed with
regard to its inconvenience as a provocative of smuggling into the United
States along an extensive and thinly guarded land border. The effort
made by the joint resolution of March 1,1895, to remedy the abuse charged
by suspending the privilege of free transportation in bond across the territory of the United States to Mexico failed of good result, as is stated
in Report No. 702 of the House of Representatives, submitted in the last
session, March 11,1898. As the question is one to be conveniently met
by wise concurrent legislation of the two countries looking to the protec-
�1CKINLEY
gulations will inconsequence tenni•ew legislation should be enacted
2 changed conditions,
sions of the extradition convention
irious times the occasion of contro• . An acute differeoce arose in the
>
lelivery of Jesus Guerra, who, havr the border with the proclaimed
gainst President Diaz, escaped into
he ground that the alleged offense
refore came within the treaty pro: contention was that the excepieuses, and that as Guerra's acts
of murder, arson, kidnaping, and
came void, a position which this
iew of the received international
he Mexican Government, in view
)f the termination of the conventhat date, at the same time invit1, toward which negotiations are
essity of some amendment of our
imon stipulation of such treaties
e up its own citizens, with the
with Japan, that it may surrenry by an almost uniform course
i the obligation to surrender the
•rity to act. The conferment of
it sound morality which shrinks
or of a heinous crime. Again,
r what is styled extradition by
red by one foreign government,
rritory of the United States to.jjj
A recommendation in this beH
86 was not acted upon. The: ^
6
has been often discussed with
: of smuggling into the United
-ded land border. The effort
;, to remedy the abuse charged
-tation in bond across the terd of good result, as is stated
itatives, submitted in the last
s one to be conveniently met
intries looking to the protec-
Second Annual
Message
1909
tion of the revenues by harmonious measures operating equally on either
side of the boundary, rather than by conventional arrangements, I suggest
that Congress consider the advisability of authorizing and inviting a conference of representatives of the Treasury Departments of the United
States and Mexico to consider the subject in all its complex bearings,
and make report with pertinent recommendations to the respective Governments for the information and consideration of their Congresses.
The Mexican Water Boundary Commission has adjusted all matters
submitted to it to the satisfaction of both Governments save in three
important cases—that of the "Chamizal" at El Paso, Tex., where the
two commissioners failed to agree, and wherein, for this case only, thia
Government has proposed to Mexico the addition of a third member;
the proposed elimination of what are known as " Bancos," small isolated
islands formed by the cutting off of bends in the Rio Grande, from the
operation of the treaties of 1884 and 1889, recommended by the commissioners and approved by this Government, but still under consideration by Mexico; and the subject of the "Equitable distribution of the
waters of the Rio Grande," for which the commissioners recommended
an international dam and reservoir, approved by Mexico, but still under
consideration by this Government. Pending these questions it is necessary to extend the life of the commission, which expires December
23 next.
The coronation of the young Queen of the Netherlands was made the
occasion of fitting congratulations.
The claim of Victor H . McCord against Peru, which for a number of
years has been pressed by this Government and has on several occasions
attracted the attention of the Congress, has been satisfactorily adjusted.
A protocol was signed May 17,1898, whereby, the fact of ^ b i l i t y being
admitted, the question of the amount to be awarded was submitted to the
chief justice of Canada as sole arbitrator. His award sets the indemnity
due the claimant at $40,000.
The Government of Peru has given the prescribed notification of its
intention to abrogate the treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation
concluded with this country August 31, 1887. As that treaty contains
many important provisions necessary to the maintenance of commerce
and good relations, which could with difficulty be replaced by the negotiation of renewed provisions within the brief twelve months intervening
before the treaty terminates, I have invited suggestions by Peru as to
the particular provisions it is desired to annul, in the hope of reaching an
arrangement whereby the remaining articles may be provisionally saved.
His Majesty the Czar having announced his purpose to r^ise the
Imperial Russian mission at this capital to the rank of an embassy,
I responded, under the authority conferred by the act of March 3,
1893, by commissioning and accrediting the actual representative at St.
Petersburg in the capacity of ambassador extraordinary and plenipoten-
�igio
si!
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
tiary. The Russian ambassador to this country has since presented his
credentials.
The proposal of the Czar for a general reduction of the vast military
establishments that weigh so heavily upon many peoples in time of peace
was communicated to this Government with an earnest invitation to be
represented in the conference, which it is contemplated to assemble with
a view to discussing the means of accomplishing so desirable a result
His Majesty was at once informed of the cordial sympathy of this Government with the principle involved in his exalted proposal and of the readiness of the United States to take part in the conference. The active
military force of the Uhited States, as measured by our population, territorisl area, and taxable wealth, is, and under any conceivable prospective
conditions must continue to be, in time of peace so conspicuously less
than that of the armed powers to whom the Czar's appeal is especially
addressed that the question can have for us no practical importance save
as marking an auspicious step toward the betterment of the condition of
the modem peoples and the cultivation of peace and good will among
them; but in this view it behooves us as a nation to lend countenance
and aid to the beneficent project.
The claims of owners of American sealing vessels for seizure by Russian cruisers in Bering Sea are being pressed to a settlement. The equities of the cases justify the expectation that a measure of reparation will
eventually be accorded in harmony with precedent and in the^ght of the
proven facts.
The recommendation made in my special message of April 27 last is
renewed, that appropriation be made to reimburse the master and owners
of the Russian bark //arts for wrongful arrest of the master and detention of the vessel in Febmary, 1896, by officers of the United States
district court for the southern district of Mississippi. The papers accompanying my said message make out a most meritorious claim and justify
the urgency with which it has been presented by the Government of
Russia.
Malietoa Laupepa, King of Samoa, died on August 22 last. According to Article I of the general act of Berlin, "his successor shall be duly
elected according to the laws and customs of Samoa."
Arrangements having been agreed upon between the signatories of the
general act for the return of Mataafa and the other exiled Samoan chiefs,
they were brought from Jaluit by a German war vessel and landed at
Apia ou September iS last.
Whether the death of Malietoa and the return of his old-time rival
Mataafa will add to the undesirable complications which the execution
of the tripartite general act has heretofore developed remains to be seen.
The efforts of this Government will, as heretofore, be addressed toward
a h.armonious and exact fulfillment of the terms of the international
engagement to which the United States became a party in 1889.
�FINLEY
ountry has since presented his
reduction of the vast military
i many peoples in time of peace
ith an earnest invitation to be
contemplated to assemble with
iplishing so desirable a result,
.rdial sympathy of this Governalted proposal and of the readii the conference. The active
sured by our population, terriler any conceivable prospective
)f peace so conspicuously less
he Czar's appeal is especially
s no practical importance save
betterment of the condition of
jf peace and good will among
a nation to lend countenance
ng vessels for seizure by Rused to a settlement. The equiit a measure of reparation will
recedent and in the light of the
al message of April 27 last is
mburse the master and owners
-rest of the master and detenofficers of the United States
ississippi. The papers accom. meritorious claim and justify
«nted by the Government of
on August 22 last. Accord1, " his successor shall be duly
of Samoa."
between the signatories of the
he other exiled Samoan chiefs,
nan war vessel and landed at
: return of his old-time rival
lications which the execution
developed remains to be seen,
retofore, be addressed toward
ie terms of the international
came a party in 1889.
Second A nnual
Message
1911
The Cheek claim against Siam, after some five years of controversy,
has been adjusted by arbitration under an agreement signed July 6, 1897,
an award of 706,721 ticals (about $187,987.78), with release of the Cheek
estate from mortgage claims, having been rendered March 21, 1898, in
favor of the claimant by the arbitrator, Sir Nicholas John Hannen, British
chief justice for China and Japan.
An envoy from Siam has been accredited to this Government and has
presented his credentials.
Immediately upon the outbieax of the war with Spain the Swiss Government, fulfilling the high mission it has deservedly assumed as the
patron of the International Red Cross, proposed to the United States and
Spain that they should severally recognize and carry into execution, as a
modus vivendi, during the continuance of hostilities, the additional articles proposed by the international conference of Geneva, October 20,1868,
extending the effects of the existing Red Cross convention of 1864 to
the conduct of naval war. Following the example set by France and
Germany in 1870 in adopting such a modus vivendi, and in view of
the accession of the United States to those additional articles in 1882,
although the exchange of ratifications thereof still remained uneffected,
the Swiss proposal was promptly and cordially accepted by us, and simultaneously by Spain.
This Government feels a keen satisfaction in having thus been enabled to testify its adherence to the broadest principles of humanity even
amidst the clash of war, and it is to be hoped that the extension of the
Red Cross compact to hostilities by sea as well as on land may soon become an accomplished fact through the general promulgation of the additional naval Red Cross articles by the maritime powers now parties to
the convention of 1864.
The important question of the claim of Switzerland to the perpetual
cantonal allegiance of American citizens of Swiss origin has not made
hopeful progress toward a solution, and controversies in this regard still
continue.
The newly accredited envoy of the United States to the Ottoman Porte
carries instructions looking to the disposal of matters in controversy with
Turkey for a number of years. He is especially charged to nress for a
just settlement of our claims for indemnity by reason of the dejstruction
of the property of American missionaries resident in that country during
the Armenian troubles of 1895, as well as for the recognition of older
claims of equal justness.
He is also instructed to seek an adjustment of the dispute growing out
of the refusal of Turkey to recognize the acquired citizenship of Ottomanborn persons naturalized in the United States since 1869 without prior
imperial consent, and in the same general relation he is directed to endeavor to bring about a solution of the question which has more or less
acutely existed since 1869 concerning the jurisdictional rights of the
�United States in matters ot criminal procednre and punfabment under
Article I V of the treaty of 1830. This latter difficulty grows out ol *
verbal difference, claimed by Turkey to be essential, between the original
Turkish text and the promulgated translation.
After more than two years from the appointment of a consul erf thfa
country to Erzerum, he has received his exequatur.
The arbitral tribunal appointed under the treaty of February 2, 1897,
between Great Britain and Venezuela, to determine the boundary line
between the latter and the colony of British Guiana, is to convene at
Paris during the present month. I t is a source of much gratification to
this Government to see the friendly resort of arbitration applied to the
settlement of this controversy, not alone because of the earnest part
,^
have had in bringing about the result, but also because the two members
$
named on behalf of Venezuela, Mr. Chief Justice Fuller and Mr. Justice .
Brewer, chosen from onrhighest court, appropriately testify the continu5
ing interest we feel in the definitive adjustment of the question according T S
to the strictest rules of justice. The British members, Lord Herschdl
J
and Sir Richard Collins, are jurists of no less exalted repute, while the
^
fifth member and president of the tribunal, M. F. De Martens, has earned
a world-wide reputation as an authority upon international law.
The claim of Felipe Scandella against Venezuela for arbitrary expulsion and injury to his business has been adjusted by the revocation of the
\
order of expulsion and by the payment of the sum of £16,000.
I have the satisfaction of being able to state that the Bureau of the
American Republics, created in 1890 as the organ for promoting commercial intercourse and fraternal relations among the countries of the
;
Western Hemisphere, has become a more efficient instrument of the wise
.'
purposes of its founders, and is receiving the cordial support of the
contributing members of the international union which are actually
represented in its board of management. A commercial directory, in
two volumes, containing a mass of statistical matter descriptive of the
industrial and commerdal interests of the various countries, has been
printed in EngUsh, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, and a monthly
bulletin published in these four languages and distributed in the LatinAmerican countries as well as in the United States has proved to be a
valuable medium for disseminating information and furthering the varied
interests of the international union.
J
, _
During the past year the important work of collecting information of
practical benefit to American industries and trade through the agency
of the diplomatic and consular officers has been steadily advanced, and i n
order to lay such data before the public with the least delay the practice
was begun in January, 1898, of issuing the commerdal reports from day
to-day as they are recdved by the Department of State. I t is believed
that for promptitude as well as fullness of information the service thus
supplied to our merchants and manufacturers will be found to show sen-
�^
Lixiucr
i latter diificnlty grows oat of a
be essential, between the original
dation.
appointment of a consul of this
exequatur.
the treaty of February 2, 1897,
to determine the boundary line
iritish Guiana, is to convene at
1 source of much gratification to
ort of arbitration applied to the
: because of the earnest part we
it also because the two members
Justice Fuller and Mr. Justice
ppropriately testify the continutment of the question according
-itish members, Lord Herschell
> less exalted repute, while the
, M. F. De Martens, has earned
pon international law.
Venezuela for arbitrary expul1 justed by the revocation of the
the sum of $16,000.
state that the Bureau of the
he organ for promoting com5 among the countries of the
fficient instrument of the wise
r the cordial support of the
1 union which are actually
A commercial directory, in
:al matter descriptive of the
various countries, has been
ind French, and a monthly
md distributed in the Latini States has proved to be a
on and furthering the varied
sible improvement end'to
it the liberal support of Congress.
The experiences of the
bring fordbly hose to as a sense of
the burdens and the waste of war. We desire, in common with most
dvilized nations, to reduce to the lowest possible point the damage sustained in time of war by peaceable trade and commerce. I t is true we
may suffer in such cases less than other communities, but all nations are
damaged more or less by the state of uneasiness and apprehension into
which an outbreak of hostilities throws the entire commerdal world. I t
should be our object, therefore, to minimize, so far as practicable, this inevitable loss and disturbance. This purpose can probably best be accomplished by an international agreement to regard all private property at
sea as exempt from capture or destruction by the forces of belligerent
powers. The United States Government has for many years advocated
this humane and beneficent prindple, and is now in position to recommend it to other powers without the imputation of sdfish motives. I
therefore suggest for your consideration that the Executive be authorized
to correspond with the governments of the principal maritime powers
with a view of incorporating into the permanent law of dvilized nations
the prindple of the exemption of all private property at sea, not contraband of war, from capture or destruction by belligerent powers.
The Secretary of the Treasury reports that the receipts of the Government from all sources during the fiscal year ended June 30,1898, including $64,751,223 received from sale of Pacific railroads, amounted to
$405,321,335, and its expenditures to $443,368,582. There was collected
from customs $149,575,062 and from internal revenue $170,900,641.
Our dutiable imports amounted to $324,635,479, a decrease of $58,156,690
over the preceding year, and importations free of duty amounted to $291,
414,175, a decrease from the preceding year of $90,524,068. Internalrevenue receipts exceeded t hose of the preceding year by $2 4,212,067.
The total tax collected on distilled spirits was $92,546,999; on manu
factured tobacco, $36,230,522, and on fermented liquors, $39,515,421
We exported merchandise during the year amounting to $1,231,482,330,
an increase of $180,488,774 from the preceding year.
It is estimated upon the basis of present revenue laws that the reedpts
of the Government for the year ending June 30, 1899, will be $577,874,647, and its expenditures $689,874,647, resulting in a defidency of
$112,000,000.
of collecting infonnation of
1 trade through the agency
:n steadily advanced, and in
the least delay the practice
m mercial reports from day
i t of State. I t is believed
formation the service thus
will be found to show sen-
On the ist of December, 1898, there was held in the TreSjury gold
coin amounting to $138,441,547, gold bullion amounting to $138,502,545,
silver bullion amounting to $93,359,250, and other forms of money
amounting to $451,963,981.
On the same date the amount of money of all kinds in circulation, or
not included in Treasury holdings, was $1,886,879,504, an increase for
the year of $165,794,966. Estimating our population at 75,194,000 at
the time mentioned, the per capita drculation was $25.09. Ou the same
�igiA
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
date there was in the Treasury gold bullion amounting to $138,502,545.
The provisions made for strengthening the resources of the Treasury
in connection with tbe war have given increased confidence in the purpose and power of the Government to maintain the present standard,
and have established more firmly than ever the national credi* at home
and abroad. A marked evidence of this is found in the innow of gold *e
the Treasury. Its net gold holdings on November x, 1898, were $239,.
885,162 as compared with $153,573,147 on November 1, 1897, and an
increase of net cash of $207,756,100, November 1,1897, to $300,238,275,
November 1,1898. The present ratio of net Treasury gold to outstanding Government liabilities, including United States notes, Treasury notes
of 1890, silver certificates, currency certificates, standard silver dollars,
and fractional silver coin, November 1,1898, was 25.35 P " ,
compared with 16.96 per cent, November 1,1897.
I renew so much of my recommendation of December, 1897, as follows:
61
oent
8 3
That when any of the United States notes are presented for redemption in gold
and are redeemed in gold, such notes shall be kept and set apart and only paid out
in exchange for gold. This is an obvious duty. If the holder of the United States
note prefers the gold and gets it from the Government, he should not receive back
from the Government a United States note without paying gold in exchange for it.
The reason for this is made all the more apparent when the Government issue* an
interest-bearing debt to provide gold for the redemption of United States notes—
a non-interest-bearing debt Surely it should not pay them out again except on
demand and for gold. If they are put out in any other way, they may return again,
to be followed by another bond issue to redeem them—another interest-bearing debt •
to redeem a non-interest-bearing debt.
This recommendation was made in the belief that such provisic
of law would insure to a greater degree the safety of the present
ard, and better protect our currency from the dangers to which i t
subjected from a disturbance in the general business conditions of
country.
In my judgment the present condition of the Treasury amply jui
fifs the immediate enactment of the legislation recommended one yea
ago, under which a portion of the gold holdings should be placed •
a trust fund from which greenbacks should be redeemed upoh, present
tion, but when once redeemed should not thereafter be paid dut
for gold.
It is not to be inferred that other legislation relating to our
is not required; on the contrary, there is an obvious demand for i t
The importance of adequate provision which will insure to our fut
a money standard related as our money standard now is to that of 1
commercial rivals is generally recognized.
The companion proposition that our domestic paper currency shall
kept safe and yet be so related to the needs of our industries and inte
commerce as to be adequate and responsive to such needs is a proposit
scarcely less important. The subject, in all its parts, is commended
�Second Annual
EY
Minting to $138,502,545.
esources of the Treasury
d confidence in the purin the present standard,
national credit at home
I in the inHow of gold
iber 1,1898, were $239,vember 1, 1897, and an
1,1897, to $300,238,275,
asury gold to outstandes notes, Treasury notes
standard silver dollars,
5-35 per cent, as com2
33
ember, 1897, follows:
ted for redemption in gold
set apart and only paid out
holder of the United States
he should not receive back
tig gold in exchange for it.
the Government issues an
i of United States noteshem out again except on
iy, they may return again,
>ther interest-bearing debt
that such provisions
of the present standangers to which it is
less conditions of the
Treasury amply justi-commended one year
should be placed in
•emed upon presenta-*r be paid out except
ting to our currency
demand for it.
insure to our future
ow is to that of our
«r currency shall be
dustries and internal
iceds is a proposition
•s, is commended to
Message
1915
the wise consideration of the Congress.
Tbe annexation of Hawaii and the changed relations of the United
States to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines resulting from the war,
compel the prompt adoption of a maritime policy by the United States.
There should be established regular and frequent steamship communication, encouraged by the United States, under the American flag, with
the newly acquired islands. Spain furnished to its colonies, at an annual
cost of about $2,000,000, steamship lines communicating with a portion
of the world's markets, as well as with trade centers of the home Government. The United States will not undertake to do less. I t is our
duty to furnish the people of Hawaii with facilities, under natdonaf
control, for their export and import trade. I t will be conceded that the
present situation calls for legislation which shall be prompt, durable,
and liberal.
The part which American merchant vessels and their seamen performed in the war with Spain demonstrates that this service, furnishing
both pickets and the second line of defense, is a national necessity, and
should be encouraged in every constitutional way. Details and methods
for the accomplishment of this purpose are discussed in the report of
the Secretary of the Treasury, to which the attention of Congress is
respectfully invited.
In my last annual message I recommended that Congress authorize the
appointment of a commission for the purpose of making systematic investigations with reference to the cause and prevention of yellow fever.
This matter has acquired an increased importance as a result of the military occupation of the island of Cuba and the commerdal intercourse
between this island and the United States which we have every reason to
expect. The sanitary problems connected with our new relations with
the island of Cuba and the acquisition of Puerto Rico are no less important than those relating tofinance,commerce, and administration. I t is
my earnest desire that these problems may be considered by competent
experts and that everything may be done which the most recent advances
in sanitary science can offer for the protection of the health of our soldiers in those islands and of our citizens who are exposed to the dang^js
of infection from the importation of yellow fever. I therefore reneto
my recommendation that the authority of Congress may be given and a
suitable appropriation made to provide for a commission of experts to
be appointed for the purpose indicated.
Under the act of Congress approved April 26, 1898, authorizing the
President in his discretion, "upon a declaration of war by Congress, or a
declaration by Congress that war exists," I directed the increase of the
Regular Army to the maximum of 62,000, authorized in said act.
There are now in the Regular Army 57,862 officers and men. In said
act it was provided—
That at the end of any war in which the United States may become involved the
�1916
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
Army shall be reduced to a peace basis by the transfer in the same arm of the i
ice or absorption by promotion or honorable discharge, under such regulations as the
Secretary of War may establish, of supernumerary commissioned officers and the honorable discharge or transfer of supernumerary enlisted men; and'nothing contai
in this Act shall be construed as authorizing the permanent increase of the commissioned or enlisted force of the Regular Army beyond that now provided by the Uw
in force prior to the passage of this act, except as to the increase of twenty-five majors
provided for in section I hereof.
The importance of legislation for the permanent increase of the Army
is therefore manifest, and the recommendation of the Secretary of War
for that purpose has my unqualified approval. There can be no question
that at this time, and probably for some time in the future, 100,000 1
will be none too many to meet the necessities of the situation. At all
events, whether that number shall be required permanently or not, the
power shonld be given to the President to enlist that force if in his discretion it shonld be necessary; and the further discretion should be
given him to recruit for the Army within the above limit from the inhabitants of the islands with the government of which we are charged.
It is my purpose to muster out the entire Volunteer Army as soon as
the Congress shall provide for the increase of the regular establishment.
This will be only an act of justice and will be much appreciated by the
brave men who left their homes and employments to help the country in
its emergency.
In my last annual message I stated:
The Union Pacific Railway, main line, was sold under the decree of the United States
court for the district of Nebraska on the ist and 2d of November of this year. The
amount due the Government consisted of the principal of the subsidy bonds, $27,236,512, and the accrued interest thereon, 131,211,711.75, making the total indebted
$58,448,223.75. The bid at the sale covered thefirst-mortgagelien and the entire
mortgage claim of the Government, principal and interest.
This left the Kansas Pacific case nnconcluded. By a decree of the
court in that case an upset price for the property was fixed at a sum
which would yield to the Government only $2,500,000 upon its lien.
The sale, at the instance of the Government, was postponed first to December 15,1897, and later, upon the application of the United States, was
postponed to the 16th day of February, 1898.
Having satisfied myself that the interests of the Government required
that an effort should be made to obtain a larger sum, I directed the Secretary of the Treasury, under the act passed March 3, 1887, to pay out
of the Treasury to the persons entitled to receive the same the amounts
due upon all prior mortgages upon the Eastern and Middle divisions of
said railroad out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated,
whereupon the Attorney-General prepared a petition to be presented
to the court, offering to redeem said prior liens in such manner as the
court might direct, and praying that thereupon the United States might
be held to be subrogated to all the rights of said prior lien holders and
�.NLEY
Jer in the same arm of the servje, under such regulations « t h e
'mmissioned officers and the honted men; and nothing contained
-manent increase of the commisrid that now provided by the law
he increase of twenty-five majors
lanent increase of the Army
on of the Secretary of War
. There can be no question
1 in the future, 100,000 men
ies of the situation. A t all
red permanently or not, the
nlist that force if in his disirther discretion should be
he above limit from the init of which we are charged.
Volunteer Army as soon as
f the regular establishment,
be much appreciated by the
tnents to help the country in
er the decree of the United States
of November of this year. The
-al of the subsidy bonds, $27,236,5, making the total indebtedness
-st-mortgage lien and the entire
iterest.
luded. By a decree of the
roperty was fixed at a sum
y $2,500,000 upon its lien.
, was postponed first to Deion of the United States, was
jf the Government required
^er sum, I directed the Sec1 March 3, 1887, to pay out
:eive the same the amounts
;m and Middle divisions of
not otherwise appropriated,
a petition to be presented
iens in such manner as the
on the United States might
said prior lien holders and
Second Annual
Message
1917
that a receiver might be appointed to take possession of the mortgaged
premises and maintain and operate the same until the court or Congress
otherwise directed. Thereupon the reorganization committee agreed
that if said petition was withdrawn and the sale allowed to proceed on the
16th of February, 1898, they would bid a sum at the sale which would
realize to the Government the entire principal of its debt, $6,303,000.
Believing that no better price could be obtained and appreciating the
difficulties under which the Government would labor if it should become
the purchaser of the road at the sale, in the absence of any authority by
Congress to take charge of and operate the road I directed that upon
the guaranty of a minimum bid which should give the Government the
principal of its debt the sale should proceed. By this transaction the
Government secured an advance of $3,803,000 over and above the sun
which the court had fixed as the upset price, and which the reorganization committee had declared was the maximum which they would pay
for the property.
It is a gratifying fact that the result of these proceedings against the
Union Pacific system and the Kansas Pacific fine is that the Government
has received on account of its subsidy claim the sum erf $64,751,223.75,
an increase of $18,997,163.76 over the sum which the reorganization
committee originally agreed to bid for the joint property, the Government receiving its whole claim, principal and interest, on the Union
Pacific, and the principal of its debt on the Kansas Pacific Railroad.
Steps had been taken to foreclose the Government's lien upon the
Central Pacific Railroad Company, but before action was commenced
Congress passed an act, approved July 7, 1898, creating a commission
consisting of the Secretary of the Treasury, the Attorney-General, and
the Secretary of the Interior, and their successors in office, with full
power to settle the indebtedness to the Government growing out of the
issue of bonds in aid of the construction of the Central Pacific and Westem Pacific bond-aided railroads, subject to the approval of the President.
No report has yet been made to me by the commission thus created.
Whatever action is had looking to a settlement of the indebtedness in accordance with the act referred to will be duly submitted to the Congress.
I deem it my duty to call to the attention of Congress the addition of
the present building occupied by the Department of Justice. The boainess of that Department has increased very greatly since it was established in its present quarters. The building now occupied by it is neither
large enough nor of suitable arrangement for the proper accommodation
of the business of the Department The Supervising Architect has pronounced it unsafe and unsuited for the use to which it is put. The
Attorney-General in his report states that the library of the Department
is upon the fourth floor, and that all the space allotted to it is so crowded
with books as to dangerously overload the structure. The first floor is
occupied by the Court of Claims. The building is of an old and dilapi-
�igiS
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
dated appearance, unsuited to the dignity which should attach to this
important Department.
A proper regard for the safety, comfort, and convenience of the officers
and employees would justify the expenditure of a liberal sum of money
in the erection of a new building of commodious proportions and handsome appearance upon the very advantageous site already secured for
that purpose, including the ground occupied by the present structure and
adjoining vacant lot, comprising in all a frontage of 201 feet on Pennsylvania avenue and a depth of 136 feet.
In this connection I may likewise refer to the inadequate accommodations provided for the Supreme Court in the Capitol, and suggest the
wisdom of making provision for the erection of a separate building tot
the court and its officers and library upon available ground near the
Capitol.
The postal service of the country advances with extraordinary growth.
Within twenty years both the revenues and the expenditures of the PostOffice Department have multiplied threefold. In the last ten years they
have nearly doubled. Our postal business grows much more rapidly
than our population. I t now involves an expenditure of $100,000,000 a
year, numbers 73,000 post-offices, and enrolls 200,000 employees. This
remarkable extension of a service which is an accurate index of the public
conditions presents gratifying evidence of the advancement of education,
of the increase of communication and business activity, and of the improvement of mail facilities leading to their constantly augmenting use.
The war with Spain laid new and exceptional labors on the Post-Office
Department. The mustering of the military and naval forces of the
United States required special mail arrangements for every camp and
e^ery campaign. The communication between home and camp was naturally eager and expectant. In some of the larger places of rendezvous
as many as 50,000 letters a day required handling. This necessity was
met by tbe prompt detail and dispatch of experienced men from the estabUshed force and by directing all the instrumentalities of the railway mail
and post-office service, so far as necessary, to this new need. Congress
passed an act empowering the Postmaster-General to establish offices cr
branches at every military camp or station, and u^der this authority the
postal machinery was speedily put into effective operation.
Under the same authority, when our forces moved upon Cuba, Puerto
Rico, and the Philippines they were attended and followed by the postal
service. Though the act of Congress authorized the appointment of
postmasters where necessary, it was early determined that the public
interests would best be subserved, not by new designations, but by the
detail of experienced men familiar with every branch of the service, and
this policy was steadily followed. When the territory which was the
theater of conflict came into our possession, it became necessary to reestablish mail facilities for the resident population as well as to provide
�• LEY
hich should attach to this
1 convenience of the officers
: of a liberal sum of money
ious proportions and handus site already secured for
by the present structure and
atage of 201 feet on Pennthe inadequate accommodae Capitol, and suggest the
1 of a separate building fat
available ground near the
with extraordinary growth,
ie expenditures of the PostIn the last ten years they
grows much more rapidly
penditure of $100,000,000 a
s 200,000 employees. This
accurate index of the public
: advancement of education,
ess activity, and of the imconstantly augmenting use.
nal labors on the Post-Office
ry and naval forces of the
ements for every camp and
en home and camp was natlarger places of rendezvous
idling. This necessity was
.-rienced men from the estabentalities of the railway mail
.0 this new need. Congress
eneral to establish offices cr
ind under this authority the
ive operation.
•s moved upon Cuba, Puerto
1 and followed by the postal
horized the appointment of
determined that the public
ew designations, but by the
y branch of the service, and
the territory which was the
it became necessary to reeslation as well as to provide
Second Annual
Message
1919
them for our forces of occupation, and the former requirement was met
through the extension and application of the latter obligation. I gave
the requisite authority, and the same general prindple was applied to this
•s to other branches of d v i l administration under military occupation.
The details are more particularly given in the report of the PostmasterGeneral, and, while the work is only just begun, it is pleasing to be able
to say that the service in the territory which has come under our control
is already materially improved.
The following recommendations of the Secretary of the Navy relative
to the increase of the Navy have my earnest approval:
1. Three seagoing sheathed and coppered battle ships of about 13,500
tons trial displacement, carrying the heaviest armor and most nowerful
ordnance for vessels of their class, and to have the highest practicable
speed and great radius of action. Estimated cost, exclusive of armor
and armament, $3,600,000 each.
2. Three sheathed and coppered armored cruisers of about 12,000 tons
trial displacement, carrying the heaviest armor and most powerful ordnance for vessels of their dass, and to have the highest practicable speed
and great radius of action. Estimated cost, exclusive of armor and armament, $4,000,000 each.
3. Three sheathed and coppered protected cruisers of about 6,000 tons
trial displacement, to have the highest practicable speed and great radius
of action, and to carry the most powerful ordnance suitable for vessels of
their class. Estimated cost, exdusive of armor and armament, $2,150,000
each.
4. Six sheathed and coppered cruisers of about 2,500 tons trial dis>
placement, to have the highest speed compatible with good cruising
qualities, great radius of action, and to carry the most powerful ordnance
suited to vessels of their class. Estimated cost, exdusive of armament,
$1,141,800 each.
I join with the Secretary of the Navy in recommending that the
grades of admiral and vice-admiral be temporarily revived, to be filled
by officers who have specially distinguished themselves in the war with
Spain.
I earnestly urge upon Congress the importance of early^ legislation
providing for the taking of the Twelfth Census. This is necessary in
view of the large amount of work which must be performed in the
preparation of the schedules preparatory to the enumeration of the population.
There were on the pension rolls on June 30,1898, 993,714 names, an
increase of nearly 18,000 over the number on the rolls on the same day
of the preceding year. The amount appropriated by the act of December 22, 1896, for the payment of pensions for the fiscal year of 1898 was
$140,000,000. Eight million seventy thousand eight hundred and seventy-two dollars and forty-six cents was appropriated by the act of March
�1920
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
31,1898, to cover deficiencies in army pensions, and repayments in the
sum of $12,020.33, making a total of $148,082,892.79 available for the
payment of pensions during the fiscal year 1898. The amount disbursed
from that sum was $144,651,879.80, leaving a balance of $3,431,012.99
unexpended on the 30th of June, 1898, which was covered into the Treasury. There were 389 names added to the rolls during the year by spedal
acts passed at the second session of the Fifty-fifth Congress, making a
total of 6,486 pensioners by Congressional enactments since 1861.
The total reedpts of the Patent Office during the past year were
$1,253,948.44. The expenditures were $1,081,633.79, leaving a surplus
of $172,314.65.
The public lands disposed of by the Government daring the year
reached 8,453,896.92 acres, an increase of 614,780.26 acres over the previous year. The total reedpts from public lands during thefiscalyear
amounted to $2,277,995.18, an increase of $190,063.90 over the preceding year. The lands embraced in the deven forest reservations which
were suspended by the act of June 4,1897, again became subject to the
operations of the prodamations of February 22, 1897, creating them,
which added an estimated amount of 19,951,360 acres to the area embraced in the reserves previously created. In addition thereto two new
reserves were created during the year—the Pine Mountain and Zaca Lake
Reserve, in California, embracing 1,644,594 acres, and the Prescott Reserve, in Arizona, embradng 10,240 acres—while the Pecos River Reserve,
in New Mexico, has been changed and enlarged to indude 120,000 additional acres.
At the dose of the year thirty forest reservations, not induding those
of the Afognak Forest and the Fish-Culture Reserve, in Alaska, had been
created by Executive proclamations under section 24 of the act of March 3,
1891, embradng an estimated area of 40,719,474 acres.
The Department of the Interior has inaugurated a forest system, made
possible by the act of July, 1898, for a graded force of officers in control of the reserves. This system has only been in full operation since
August, but good results have already been secured in many sections.
The reports recdved indicate that the system of patrol has not only prevented destructive fires from gaining headway, but has diminished the
number of
fires.
^
The special attention of the Congress is called to that part of the
report of the Secretary of the Interior in relation to the Five Civilized
Tribes. It is noteworthy that the general condition of the Indians shows
marked progress. But one outbreak of a serious character occurred during the year, and that among the Chippewa Indians of Minnesota, which
happily has been suppressed.
While it has not yet been practicable to enforce all the provisions of
Ihe act of June 28, 1898, " for the protection of the people of the Indian
Territory, and for other purposes," it is having a salutary effect upon
the nations composing the five tribes. The Dawes Commission reports
�.E Y
s, and repayments in the
,892.79 available for the
The amount disbursed
balance of $3,431,012.99
as covered into the Treasdnring the year by special
-fifth Congress, making 3
tments since 1861.
ring the past year were
• 633.79, leaving a surplus
mment during the year
•80.26 acres over the prends during the fiscal year
5,063.90 over the preced"orest reservations which
in became subject to the
22, 1897, creating them,
5o acres to the area emddition thereto two new
Mountain and Zaca Lake
res, and the Prescott Re: the Pecos River Reserve,
to include 120,000 addiibns, not including those
erve, in Alaska, had been
i 24 of the act of March 3,
4 acres.
ted a forest system, made
force of officers in con:n in full operation since
ecured in many sections.
" patrol has not only pre, but has diminished the
lied to that part of the
on to the Five Civilized
ion of the Indians shows
; character occurred durians of Minnesota, which
rce all the provisions of
the people of the Indian
g a salutary effect upon
wes Commission reports
Second Annual Message
1921
that the most gratifying results and greater advance toward the attainment of the objects of the Government have been secured in the past
year than in any previous year. I can not too strongly indorse the
recommendation of the commission and of the Secretary of the Interior
for the necessity of providing for the education of the 30,000 white
children resident in the Indian Territory.
The Department of Agriculture has been active in the past year.
Explorers have been sent to many of the countries of the Eastern and
Western hemispheres for seeds and plants that may be useful to the
United States, and with the further view of opening up markets for our
surplus products. Tbe Forestry Division of the Department is giving
special attention to the treeless regions of our country and is introducing species specially adapted to semiarid regions. Forest fires, which
seriously interfere with production, especially in irrigated regions, are
being studied, that losses from this cause may be avoided. The Department is inquiring into the use and abuse of water in many States of the
West, and collating information regarding the laws of the States, the
decisions of the courts, and the customs of the people in this regard,
so that uniformity may be secured. Experiment stations are becoming
more effective every year. The annual appropriation of $720,000 by
Congress is supplemented by $400,000 from the States. Nation-wide
experiments have been conducted to ascertain the suitableness as to soil
and climate and States for growing sugar beets. The number of sugar
factories has been doubled in the past two years, and the ability of the
United States to produce its own sugar from this source has been clearly
demonstrated.
The Weather Bureau forecast and observation stations have been extended around the Caribbean Sea, to give early warning of the approach
of hurricanes from the south seas to ourfleetsand merchant marine.
In the year 1900 will occur the centennial anniversary of the founding
of the city of Washington for the permanent capital of the Government
of the United States by authority of an act of Congress approved July 16,
1790. In May, 1800, the archives and general offices of the Federal Government were removed to this place. On the 17th of November, 1800,
the National Congress met here for the first time and assunftgd exclusive
control of the Federal district and city. This interesting evdnt assumes
all the more significance when we recall the circumstances attending the
choosing of the site, the naming of the capital in honor of the Father of
his Country, and the interest taken by him in the adoption of plans for
its future development on a magnificent scale.
These original plans have been wrought out with a constant progress
and a signal success even beyond anything their framers could have foreseen. The people of the country are justly proud of the distinctive
beauty and government of the capital and of the rare instruments of
science and education which here find their natural home.
A movement lately inaugurated by the citizens to have the anniversary
�1922
WILLIAM
MCKINLEY
celebrated with fitting ceremonies, including, perhaps, the establishment
of a handsome permanent memorial to mark so historical an occasion
and to give it more than local recognition, has met with general favor on
the part of the public
I recommend to the Congress the granting of an appropriation for this
purpose and the appointment of a committee from its respective bodies.
It might also be advisable to authorize the President to appoint a committee from the country at large, which, acting with the Congressional
and District of Columbia committees, can complete the plans for an appropriate national celebration.
The alien contract law is shown by experience to need some amendment; a measure providing better protection for seamen is proposed;
the rightful application of the eight-hour law for the benefit of labor and
of the principle of arbitration are suggested for consideration; and I
commend these subjects to the careful attention of the Congress.
The several departmental reports will be laid before you. They give
in great detail the conduct of the affairs of the Government during the
past year and discuss many questions upon which the Congress may feel
called upon to act.
T H I R D ANNUAL MESSAGE.
EXECUTIVE
MANSION, December
1899
To the Senate and House of Representatives :
At the threshold of your deliberations you are called to mourn with
your Countrymen the death of Vice-President Hobart, who passed
from this life on the morning of November 21 last. His great soul
now rests in eternal peace. His private life was pure and elevated,
while his public career was ever distinguished by large capacity,
stainless integrity, and exalted motives. He has been removed from
�.C3V
/ 9 97
The Death of Distance
How the Communications Revolution Will Change Our Lives
Frances Caimcross
of The Economist
^ . Harvard Business School Press
; Boston, Massachusetts
�To my par
Copyright 1997 © Frances Caimcross
The Author hereby asserts her moral rights to be identified as the Author of the work.
First published in the United States by Harvard Business School Press, 1997. This edition by
arrangement with The Orion Publishing Group Limited.
First published in Great Britain by
The Orion Publishing Group Limited
Orion House
5 Upper St. Martin's Lane
London VVC2H 9EA, United Kingdom
Printed in the United States of America
01 00 99 98 97
5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Caimcross. Frances.
The death of distance : how the communicaiions revolution will
change our lives / Frances Caimcross.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87584-S06-0
1. Telecommunication. 2. Telecommunicalion- Socia! aspects.
}. Telecommunication--Forecasting. 1. Title.
HE7M1.04 1997
303 48-33--dc2l
')7- I7(>l
CM'
The papei used in this publication meets the reiiuirenieius of the American National Siamlanl
lor Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z> >.4 »-19$4.
l
t
�Contents
Preface
The Trendspotter's Guide to New Communications
vii
xi
1
1
The Communications Revolution
2
The Telephone
27
3
The Television
59
4
The Internet
87
5
Commerce and Companies
119
6
Competition, Concentration, and Monopoly
155
7
Policing the Electronic World
179
8
The Economy
209
9
Society, Culture, and the Individual
233
Government and the Nation State
257
Notes
281
Index
295
About the Author
303
10
�Preface
Describing the electronic miracles of our age in the old-fashioned format of ink on wood pulp may strike you as ironic. Put it down to the
fact that, for the moment, the printed and bound book remains the
most convenient way to introduce new ideas into the world. The new
ideas in this book are about the many ways in which the most significant technological changes of our time will affect the next century—
and your life. You will find a preview of the most important in "The
Trendspotter's Guide to New Communications" that immediately follows this preface; the rest of the book sets out to interpret and elaborate
these core points.
You need not be an Internet enthusiast to benefit from this book. The
book is only incidentally about communications technologies themselves, and you certainly do not need to understand microprocessors,
digital compression, fiber-optic cable, or any other technical paraphernalia. You need only a desire to know how these technologies will
transform our lives and those of our children.
Forecasting the future is easier when the big technological innovations are in place. In 1897, for example, a far-sighted person could have
Ruessed that the invention of the automobile would change society dramatically in the subsequent century. The design of the car and its
engine have changed many times over the past hundred years, but the
basic technology and its potential were already in place. The advances
of the past few decades are now converging. Creators and users of tech"ologies such as the Internet, the mobile telephone, and digital television will refine and rearrange them in many ways in the coming
«™"ry. but their broad shape is clear to us.
m
Vll
�vm
The Death of Distance
The book began as a survey, also called "The Death of Distance," that
I wrote for The Economist in 1995.' The title plays upon The Tyranny of
Distance, Geoffrey Blainey's classic study of the impact of isolation on
Australia. After having various conversations with people at the World
Bank and reading "Near-Zero Tariff Telecommunications," 1 realized
that the steep fall in the distance premium for communications would
be of enormous economic and social importance around the world.
2
3
Not surprisingly, most previous analysis of the communications
industry has been from an American viewpoint, given American dominance of the Internet. Writing for The Economist, a British magazine
based in London, prepares one well for the distance-free world of the
future: the readers are scattered about the world, with two-thirds of the
circulation in the United States and most of the remaining third outside Britain. The perspective of this book is similar to that of The Economist—neither American nor British, but international or multinational.
Many people have contributed to the ideas in the book. Among those
who have read and commented on various drafts are Patrick Barwise,
David Bowen, Jonathan Davis, Jason Kowal, Patrick Lane, Sverker
Lindbo, Edward Lucas, Robert Pinder, Nick Valery, Hal Vogel, and Pam
Woodall. Victor Earl and Emma Whitehouse checked many facts for
me, as did Tina Davis, Jenny Geddes, and Fiona Haynes. Michael
Minges, Sam Paltridge, Greg Staple, and Mark Roberts answered innumerable questions.
I owe an enormous debt to my publishers, who have once again been
an object lesson in what good editing should be. In particular, my editor Kirsten Sandberg, copyeditor Susan Boulanger, and managing editor Barbara Roth improved the original draft beyond all recognition—a
service publishers rarely perform for authors these days. They have
been stimulating and reassuring throughout the process.
I owe my greatest debts of all to four people: Chris Anderson, Azeem
Azhar, Tim Kelly, and Hamish McRae. Chris and Azeem, my colleagues
at The Economist, have been endlessly generous with their ideas, their
understanding of communications, and their time. They have read
drafts, offered facts and examples that galvanized the text, and rescued
me from egregious errors Tim Kelly of the International Telecommunication Union in Geneva also read the whole book, some of it more than
once, and made numerous detailed and inestimable suggestions. And
Hamish McRae not only put up with all the usual inconveniences that
ts of authors endure, bu
jting and original points. T
'Id in 2020* will spot a certair
f f f f f l y a joint effort, the product of >
J ^ q ^ r a l k s across Hampstead Heath,
don, July 1997
�Pieface
> called "The Death of Distance," that
The title plays upon The Tyranny of
: study of the impact of isolation on
•nversations with people at the World
iff Telecommunications," J realized
premium for communications would
ial importance around the world,
is analysis of the communications
an viewpoint, given American domi•r The Economist, a British magazine
:11 for the distance-free world of the
out the world, with two-thirds of the
id most of the remaining third out s book is similar to that of The Econoi, but international or multinational,
i the ideas in the book. Among those
i various drafts are Patrick Barwise,
ason Kowal, Patrick Lane, Sverker
der, Nick Valery, Hal Vogel, and Pain
Vhitehouse checked many facts for
-ddes, and Fiona Haynes. Michael
and Mark Roberts answered innu1
3
1
iblishers, who have once again been
ing should be. In particular, my ediusan Boulanger, and managing ediinal draft beyond all recognition—a
for authors these days. They have
roughout the process,
lour people: Chris Anderson, Azeem
ae. Chris and Azeem, my colleagues
sly generous with their ideas, their
>, and their time. They have read
hat galvanized the text, and rescued
' of the International Telecommunie whole book, some of it more than
and inestimable suggestions. And
h all the usual inconveniences that
1
IX
the spouses of authors endure, but also suggested many of the most
illuminating and original points. Those who have read his own book.
The World in 2020, will spot a certain continuity of thought. This book is
really a joint effort, the product of many conversations over breakfast,
on walks across Hampstead Heath, and far into the night.
4
London, July 1997
�The Trendspotter's Guide to New Communications.
How will the death of distance shape the future? Here are some of the
most important developments to watch, each discussed in depth later
in this book.
I
1. The Death of Distance. Distance will no longer determine the cost
of communicating electronically. Companies will organize certain
types of work in three shifts according to the world's three main
time zones: the Americas, East Asia/Australia, and Europe.
2. The Fate of Location. No longer will location be key to most business decisions. Companies will locate any screen-based activity
anywhere on earth, wherever they can find the best bargain of
skills and productivity. Developing countries will increasingly
perform on-line services—monitoring security screens, running
help-lines and call centers, writing software, and so forth—and
sell them to the rich industrial countries that generally produce
such services domestically.
5|3. The Irrelevance of Size. Small companies will offer services I hat,
in the past, only giants had the scale and scope to provide. Individuals with valuable ideas, initiative, and strong business plans
will attract global venture capital and convert their ideas into
- viable businesses. Small countries will also be more viable. That
It will be good news for secession movements everywhere.
|Improved Connections. Most people on earth will eventually
ihave access to networks that are all switched, interactive, and
^oadband: "switched," like the telephone, and used to contact
v/ other subscribers; "interactive" in that, unlike broadcast
y. all ends of the network can communicate; and "broad-
�The T r e n d s p o t t e r ' s Gu
The Death of Distance
Xll
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1 1.
band," with the capacity to receive TV-quality motion pictures.
While the Internet will continue to exist in its present form, it
will also be integrated into other services, such as the telephone
and television.
More Customized Content. Improved networks will also allow
individuals to order "content for one"; that is, individual consumers will receive (or send) exactly what they want to receive
(or send), when, and where they want it.
A Deluge of Information. Because people's capacity to absorb
new information will not increase, they will need filters to sift,
process, and edit it. Companies will have greater need of boosters—new techniques—to brand and push their information
ahead of the competition's.
Increased Value of Brand. What's hot—whether a product, a personality, a sporting event, or the latest financial data—will
attract greater rewards. The costs of producing or promoting
these commodities will not change, but the potential market will
increase greatly. That will create a category of global super-rich,
many of them musicians, actors, artists, athletes, and investors.
For the successful few and their intermediaries, entertaining will
be the most lucrative individual activity on earth.
Increased Value in Niches. The power of the computer to search,
identify, and classify people according to similar needs and tastes
will create sustainable markets for many niche products. Niche
players will increase, as will consumers' demand for customized
goods and services.
Communities of Practice. The horizontal bonds among people
performing the same job or speaking the same language in different parts of the world will strengthen. Common interests,
experiences, and pursuits rather than proximity will bind these
communities together.
Near-Frictionless Markets. Many more companies and customers
will have access to accurate price information. That will curtail
excessive profits, enhance competition, and help to curb inflation, resulting in "profitless prosperity": it will be easier to find
buyers, but hard to make fat margins.
Increased Mobility. Every form of communication will be available for mobile or remote use. While fixed connections such as
|cable will offer greater capacity
Inotjust to send a signal over a
I fixed point.to users in a relativ..
I sion will allow people to use a 1 and the distinctions between fi
ment (a telephone or a personr
More Global Reach, More Loc a
nies find it easier to reach mai
nies will more readily offer hig
putting customers in one part
expertise in other places, and i
quality of local provision.
I l 3 . The Loose-Knit Corporation. C
works, rather than rigid mana
panics together. Many compai
independent specialists; more
smaller units or alone. Loyalt\
will reshape the nature of cus:
pliers will draw directly on im
their customers, working as c
house supplier now does. Tecl
and computerized billing will
consumers and suppliers at ai
14. More Minnows, More Gianting new businesses will decl
ily buy in services so that m«
up. On the other, communic,
brands and the power of net
works matter, concentration
form of loose global associai
quality guarantees.
15. Manufacturers as Service Pro
particular buyer's tastes strai;.
be easier and so manufacture
daily for an individual's requ
even retain lasting links with
instance, will continue elecin
about their vehicles through.
�The Trendspotter's Guide to New Communications
0 receive TV-quality motion pictures,
ntinue to exist in its present form, it
1 other services, such as the telephone
Improved networks will also allow
nt for one"; that is, individual cond) exactly what they want to receive
e they want it.
'.ecause people's capacity to absorb
ncrease, they will need filters to sift,
mies will have greater need of boost'rand and push their information
•Vhat's hot—whether a product, a per>r the latest financial data—will
.• costs of producing or promoting
change, but the potential market will
reate a category of global super-rich,
ctors, artists, athletes, and investors,
iheir intermediaries, entertaining will
dual activity on earth.
The power of the computer to search,
according to similar needs and tastes
Aets for many niche products. Niche
I consumers' demand for customized
ie horizontal bonds among people
speaking the same language in difII strengthen. Common interests,
nher than proximity will bind these
v\any more companies and customers
price information. That will curtail
>mpetition, and help to curb inflaprosperity"; it will be easier to find
i margins.
m of communication will be availe. WhiJe fixed connections such as
xiii
cable will offer greater capacity and speed, wireless will be used,
not just to send a signal over a large region, but to carry it from a
fixed point to users in a relatively small radius. Satellite transmission will allow people to use a single mobile telephone anywhere,
and the distinctions between fixed and mobile receiving equipment (a telephone or a personal computer) will blur.
12. More Global Reach, More Local Provision. While small companies find it easier to reach markets around the world, big companies will more readily offer high-quality local services, such as
putting customers in one part of the world directly in touch with
expertise in other places, and monitoring more precisely the
quality of local provision.
13. The Loose-Knit Corporation. Culture and communications networks, rather than rigid management structures, will hold companies together. Many companies will become networks of
independent specialists; more employees will therefore work in
smaller units or alone. Loyalty, trust, and open communications
will reshape the nature of customer and supplier contracts: suppliers will draw directly on information held in databases by
their customers, working as closely and seamlessly as an inhouse supplier now does. Technologies such as electronic mail
and computerized billing will reduce the costs of dealing with
consumers and suppliers at arm's length.
14. More Minnows, More Giants. On one hand, the cost of starting new businesses will decline, and companies will more easily buy in services so that more small companies will spring
up. On the other, communication amplifies the strength of
brands and the power of networks. In industries where networks matter, concentration may increase, but often in the
form of loose global associations under a banner of brands or
quality guarantees.
p . Manufacturers as Service Providers. Feeding information on a
particular buyer's tastes straight back to the manufacturer will
be easier and so manufacturers will design more products spell dally for an individual's requirements. Some manufacturers will
^ even retain lasting links with their products: car companies, for
instance, will continue electronically to track, monitor, and learn
• about their vehicles throughout the product life cycle. New
�XIV
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
The Death of Distance
opportunities to provide services for customers will emerge, and
some manufacturers may accept more responsibility for disposing of their products at the end of the cycle.
The Inversion of Home and Office. As more people work from
home or from small, purpose-built offices, the line between work
and home life will blur. The office wilJ become a place for the
social aspects of work such as celebrating, networking, lunching,
and gossiping. Home design will also change, and the domestic
office will become a regular part of the house.
The Proliferation of Ideas. New ideas and information will travel
faster to the remotest corners of the world. Third world countries
will have access to knowledge that the industrial world has long
enjoyed. Communities of practice and long-distance education
programs will help people to find mentors and acquire new skills.
A New Trust. Since it will be easier to check whether people and
companies deliver what they have promised, many services will
become more reliable and people will be more likely to trust each
other to keep their word. However, those who fail to deliver will
quickly lose that trust, which will become more difficult to regain.
People as the Ultimate Scarce Resource. The key challenge for
companies will be to hire and retain good people, extracting
value from them, rather than allowing them to keep all the value
they create for themselves. A company will constantly need to
convince its best employees that working for it enhances each
individual's value.
The Shift from Government Policing to Self-Policing. Governments will find national legislation and censorship inadequate
for regulating the global flow of information. As content sweeps
across national borders, it will be harder to enforce laws banning
child pornography, libel, and other criminal or subversive material and those protecting copyright and other intellectual property.
But greater electronic access to information will give people better means to protect themselves. The result will be more individual responsibility and less government intervention.
Loss of Privacy. As in the village of past centuries, protecting privacy will be difficult. Governments and companies will easily
monitor people's movements. Machines will recognize physical
attributes like a voice or fingerprint. People will thus come to
The Trendspotter's Guide to
jy their identity. Civil libertariai
H l p t the loss as a fair exchange for i
.j l l u d i n g fraud and illegal immigrati<
Iffere will be little true privacy—and 1
~_T listribution of Wages. Low-wage o
lekming power of many people in rich
Jroutine screen-based tasks, but the pi
ffwill grow. People with skills that are i
pbroadly similar amounts wherever th'.
I; income differences within countries \
ferences between countries will narro
23: Less Need for Immigration and Emigi
good communications technology will
skilled workers, who will be less likeh
with higher costs of living if they can
pay poor-world prices for everyday ne
Thus inexpensive communications m.
sure to emigrate.
1.24. A Market for Citizens. The greater fre<
and earn a living will hinder taxation
pare global investment rates and easil
High-income earners and profitable o
move away from hefty government-in
compete to bid down tax rates and to
and wealthy residents.
25. Rebirth of Cities. As individuals spen
and more time working from home o
transform from concentrations of off
of entertainment and culture; that is
where people go to stay in hotels, vis
dine in restaurants, participate in ch
performances of all kinds. In contras
stem the flight from the countryside
communications to provide rural dw.
services, jobs, education, and enterta
26. The Rise of English. The global role o
guage will strengthen as it becomes i
telecommunicating in business and c
1
�The Trendspotter's Guide to New Communications
i vices for customers will emerge, and
iccept more responsibility for disposend of the cycle.
Office. As more people work from
-e-built offices, the line between work
office will become a place for the
as celebrating, networking, lunching,
i will also change, and the domestic
part of the house.
s'ew ideas and information will travel
is of the world. Third world countries
ige that the industrial world has long
actice and long-distance education
0 find mentors and acquire new skills,
e easier to check whether people and
v have promised, many services will
eople will be more likely to trust each
wever, those who fail to deliver will
h will become more difficult to regain,
ce Resource. The key challenge for
id retain good people, extracting
in allowing them to keep all the value
A company will constantly need to
that working for it enhances each
Policing to Self-Policing. Governislation and censorship inadequate
w of information. As content sweeps
ill be harder to enforce laws banning
1 other criminal or subversive materyright and other intellectual property,
s to information will give people betIves. The result will be more individovernment intervention.
lage of past centuries, protecting primients and companies will easily
s. Machines will recognize physical
:erprint. People will thus come to
xv
embody their identity. Civil libertarians will worry; but others will
accept the loss as a fair exchange for the reduction of crime,
including fraud and illegal immigration. In the electronic village,
there will be little true privacy—and little unsolved crime.
22. Redistribution of Wages. Low-wage competition will reduce the
earning power of many people in rich countries employed in
routine screen-based tasks, but the premium for certain skills
will grow. People with skills that are in demand will earn
broadly similar amounts wherever they live in the world. So
income differences within countries will grow; and income differences between countries will narrow.
23. Less Need for Immigration and Emigration. Poor countries with
good communications technology will be able to retain their
skilled workers, who will be less likely to emigrate to countries
with higher costs of living if they can earn rich-world wages and
pay poor-world prices for everyday necessities right at home.
Thus inexpensive communications may reduce some of the pressure to emigrate.
24. A Market for Citizens. The greater freedom to locate anywhere
and earn a living will hinder taxation. Savers will be able to compare global investment rates and easily shift money abroad.
High-income earners and profitable companies will be able to
move away from hefty government-imposed taxes. Countries will
compete to bid down tax rates and to attract businesses, savers,
and wealthy residents.
|25. Rebirth of Cities. As individuals spend less time in the office
S and more time working from home or traveling, cities will
:
I transform from concentrations of office employment to centers
| ; of entertainment and culture; that is, cities will become places
|j where people go to stay in hotels, visit museums and galleries,
|.dine in restaurants, participate in civic events, and attend live
^performances of all kinds. In contrast, some poor countries will
|stem the flight from the countryside to cities by using low-cost
Communications to provide rural dwellers with better medical
^ervices, jobs, education, and entertainment,
pie Rise of English. The global role of EngUsh as a second laniiage will strengthen as it becomes the common standard for
leconununicating in business and commerce. Many more
�xvi
27.
28.
29.
30.
The Death of Distance
countries, especially in the developing world, will therefore
adopt English as a subsidiary language. It will be as important
to learn English as to use software that is compatible with the
near-universal MS-DOS.
Communities of Culture. At the same time, electronic communications will reinforce less widespread languages and cultures,
not replace them with Anglo-Saxon and Hollywood. The declining cost of creating and distributing many entertainment products and the corresponding increase in production capacity will
also reinforce local cultures and help scattered peoples and families to preserve their cultural heritage.
Improved Writing and Reading Skills. Electronic mail will induce
young people to express themselves effectively in writing and to
admire clear and lively written prose. Dull or muddled communicators will fall by the information wayside.
Rebalance of Political Power. Since people will communicate
their views on government more directly, rulers and representatives will become more sensitive (and, perhaps, more responsive)
to lobbying and public-opinion polls, especially in established
democracies. People who live under dictatorial regimes will make
contact more easily with the rest of the world.
Global Peace. As countries become even more economically
interdependent and as global trade and foreign investment
grow, people will communicate more freely and learn more
about the ideas and aspirations of human beings in other parts
of the globe. The effect will be to increase understanding, foster
tolerance, and ultimately promote worldwide peace.
Now read on.
Jie miles separate you from those yov.
l|vhen Americans make more lorn
|day of the year, MCI, the country'phone company, likes to give its regu
'-again in 1996, their calls to one am
| w i l l be Mother's Day, everywhere. It
ephone someone on the other side of i
K in the house across the street. In 1
Ijur mother next door.
Irhe death of distance as a determin
i i n g will probably be the single most
H I in the first half of the next century,
ver to revolutionize the way people
fxception. It will alter, in ways that arc
pipns about where people work and
fgoncepts of national borders and sovei
" ational trade. Its effects may well be
liscovery of electricity, which led in ti
ftcraper cities of Manhattan and Hong
productivity in the home.
But the death of distance is only one «
ling place as communications and con
Ijyvays. Fiber-optic networks and digital
^families, sometime in the first decade o
•.personalized "television channel" that
:.sands of films and programs. Network
' (a) like the telephone, "switched" so t
�developing world, will therefore
iry language. It will be as important
•oftware that is compatible with the
[ the same time, electronic communi• idespread languages and cultures,
lo-Saxon and Hollywood. The decliniributing many entertainment prodincrease in production capacity will
and help scattered peoples and famid heritage.
ling Skills. Electronic mail will induce
•mselves effectively in writing and to
ien prose. Dull or muddled communilation wayside.
Since people will communicate
more directly, rulers and representaiiive (and. perhaps, more responsive)
ion polls, especially m established
e under dictatorial regimes will make
rest of the world.
>ecome even more economically
-il trade and foreign investment
ate more freely and learn more
ons of human beings in other parts
be to increase understanding, foster
"mote worldwide peace.
I f the miles separate you from those you love, take heart. On Mother's
Day, when Americans make more long-distance calls than on any
other day of the year, MCI, the country's second-largest long-distance
telephone company, likes to give its regular customers a treat: in 1995
and again in 1996, their calls to one another were free. In time, every
day will be Mother's Day, everywhere. It will be no more expensive to
telephone someone on the other side of the world than to talk to someone in the house across the street. In fact, it will be just like having
your mother next door.
The death of distance as a determinant of the cost of communifcating will probably be the single most important force shaping soci|ety in the first half of the next century. Technological change has the
fpower to revolutionize the way people live, and this one will be no
jgexception. It will alter, in ways that are only dimly imaginable, decisions about where people work and what kind of work they do,
gncepts of national borders and sovereignty, and patterns of interational trade. Its effects may well be as pervasive as those of the
scovery of electricity, which led in time to the creation of the skyjj|jraper cities of Manhattan and Hong Kong and transformed labor
(oductivity in the home.
But the death of distance is only one of the astonishing changes tak|place as communications and computers are combined in new
gs. Fiber-optic networks and digital compression will allow many
ies, sometime in the first decade of the next century, to receive a
onalized "television channel" that makes available tens of thou|iOf films and programs. Networks are being developed that are
Se the telephone, "switched" so that they can be used by many
1
�The Commu
The Death of Distance
subscribers; (b) like television, high capacity, or "broadband" so that
they can carry moving pictures; and (c) interactive, so that, unlike with
television, every user of the network can communicate with every other
part. Mobile telephones now account for almost half of all new telephone connections worldwide. Tracking systems are now so refined
that they allow companies with large truck fleets to monitor whether
their drivers waste fuel by driving in the wrong gear. The Internet, virtually unheard of a decade ago, was being used in early 1997 by an estimated fifty-seven million people around the world, with perhaps
another thirteen million or so using it just for electronic mail.'
That these technologies will change the world is beyond a doubt.
How they will change it is a mystery. In 1995 Robert Allen, at the helm
of AT&T, summed up the mixture of bafflement and excitement
inspired by this new world:
One could reasonably expect the chairman of AT&T to know what
his corporation will be in ten years from now. He doesn't. One could,
within reason, expect the chairman of AT&T to be able to predict
how technology will transform his business a decade hence. He
can't. At the least, he should know who his major competitors will
be in 2005. Stumped again. But here is what he does know: something startling, intriguing, and profound is afoot.
.1-1 Ways to Communicate
f j p e d on a 1995 world total of 2,186 million inforn
flaurce: International Telecommunication Union "Wo.
fReport, 1996/97."
2
This book attempts to guess what that "startling, intriguing, and profound" something may be. The next three chapters look at the development of the three main technologies at the heart of the revolution—the
telephone, the television, and the networked computer. (See Figure 1-1.)
Chapter 5 looks at the most immediate impact of change: on commerce
and companies. Chapters 6 and 7 look at the policy issues and problems
that will face this altered world, addressing such questions as how to
ensure competition, whether giants such as Microsoft should be allowed
to dominate standards or networks, and what should be done to counter
the tendency of new communications technologies to make evil as well
as useful knowledge more accessible. The globalization of communicauons will make it harder to enforce all sorts of national laws designed to
protect children, to preserve privacy, or to prevent terrorism. Part of the
price of freedom will be a greater need for individuals to take responsibilitv for their own lives and for the smooth running of societv.
I The most important questions, coven
|lhapters, concern how the world will chai
pmcations revolution. The death of distam
fphy. Companies will have more freedom t.
Ibest be produced, rather than near its ma
fvvill gain more freedom to live far from th
ifwork will be organized in three shifts bas
i time zones: the Americas, East Asia/Ausii
f and language groups rather than mileage
Barriers and borders will break down,
people doing the same job or speaking th
parts of the world will grow stronger. Son;
between government and the governed,
grow weaker. Does that mean that elecm
the institutions that have previously helc
we will have "high-school-in-a-box," sa'-
�The Communications R e v o l u t i o n
'' Wgh capacity, or "broadband" so that
; and (c) interactive, so that, unlike with
work can communicate with every other
iccount for almost half of all new teleTracking systems are now so refined
h large truck fleets to monitor whether
mg in the wrong gear. The Internet, virwas being used in early 1997 by an esti>ple around the world, with perhaps
ising it just for electronic mail.
change the world is beyond a doubt,
stery. In 1995 Robert Allen, at the helm
ixture of bafflement and excitement
1
the chairman of AT&T to know what
ears from now. He doesn't. One could,
nrman of AT&T to be able to predict
m his business a decade hence. He
.now who his major competitors will
it here is what he does know: someprofound is afoot.
2
H that "startling, intriguing, and proext three chapters look at the develop:ies at the heart of the revolution—the
networked computer. (See Figure 1-1.)
diate impact of change: on commerce
look at the policy issues and problems
addressing such questions as how to
s such as Microsoft should be allowed
?, and what should be done to counter
ons technologies to make evil as well
)le. The globalization of communicaall sorts of national laws designed to
y, or to prevent terrorism. Part of the
iced for individuals to take responsi. smooth running of society.
1-1 Ways to Communicate
sed on a 1995 world total of 2,186 million information devices,
rce: International Telecommunication Union "World Telecommunication Development
ort, 1996/97."
jjijrhe most important questions, covered in the book's final three
apters, concern how the world will change as a result of the commuations revolution. The death of distance loosens the grip of geograSy- Companies will have more freedom to locate a service where it can
st be produced, rather than near its market. People—some at least—
llgain more freedom to live far from their employers. Some kinds of
: will be organized in three shifts based on the world's three main
|zones: the Americas, East Asia/Australia, and Europe. Time zones
|language groups rather than mileage will come to define distance,
iers and borders will break down. The horizontal bonds among
' doing the same job or speaking the same language in different
IjOf the world will grow stronger. Some of society's vertical bonds—
||£n government and the governed, or bosses and workers—will
H^eaker. Does that mean that electronic institutions will supplant
stitutions that have previously held communities together? That
l have "high-school-in-a-box," say, rather than a real, physical
J
�The Death of Distance
The Cc
place called high school? Will the personalization of communications
go hand-in-hand with social fragmentation? Undoubtedly, governments will find that national legislation is no longer adequate to regulate a global flow of information, even if some of that information is
criminal or subversive. Companies will become looser structures, held
together mainly by their cultures and their communications networks.
For individuals, the lines between work and leisure will grow less distinct. The design of the office and of the home will alter to accommodate the changing patterns of this communications-driven life.
For many people, this prospective new world is frightening. Change
is always unsettling, and we are now seeing the fastest technological
change the world has ever known. But at the heart of the communications revolution lies something that will, in the main, benefit humanity: global diffusion of knowledge. Information once available only to
the few will be available to the many, instantly and (in terms of distribution costs) inexpensively.
As a result, new ideas will spread faster, leaping borders. Poor countries will have immediate access to information that was once restricted
to the industrial world and traveled only slowly, if at all, beyond it.
Entire electorates will learn things that once only a few bureaucrats
knew. Small companies will offer services that previously only giants
could provide. In all these ways, the communications revolution is profoundly democratic and liberating, leveling the imbalance between
large and small, rich and poor. The death of distance, overall, should be
welcomed and enjoyed.
1980s, the oldest of the three
^formations—an astonishing i
Lof the long-distance network
^fsult, in the first case, from the
' si and, in the second, from the si
;
;much of its existence, the telep
ity for its most useful service: I
Iktlantic telephone service existe
m Getty could run his California oi
Ihotels, in which he chose to live !
lould make the connections he net
f'transatlantic telephone cable wen
laghty-nine simultaneous conversation
forth America. Walter Wriston, forn
pie way it felt to be an international b.
Ifuld take a day or more to get a circu
»ple in the branch would stay on th<
[pipers all day just to keep the line ope:
Since the late 1980s, capacity on th
Igrown so fast that, by the start of l
fmcreasing glut, with only 30 to 35 pen
:ason for this breathtaking transfon
iber-optic cables, made of glass so pui twould be as clear as a windowpane.
stable, with capacity to carry nearly for
sbn-line only in 1988. The cables that w
'tury will carry more than three millioi
offiber,each the width of a human ho
|A Meanwhile, new cables are being
telephone traffic on less popular roun
.range of low-orbiting satellites may ev
fic between mobile telephones. In addi
to allow many more calls to travel on
already rapidly expanding fleet of tru
times as many products into the same
5
1
m
m
The Roots of Revolution
It is easy to forget how recently the communications revolution began.
All three of today's fast-changing communications technologies have
existed for more than half a century: the telephone was invented in
1876; the first television transmission was in 1926; and the electronic
computer was invented in the mid-1940s. For much of that time,
change has been slow, but, in each case, a revolution has taken place
since the late 1980s. In order to approach the future, we need first to
ask why the really big changes have been so recent and so far-reaching.
3
if:
�The Communications Revolution
the personalization of communications
! fragmentation? Undoubtedly, govemegislation is no longer adequate to reguion, even if some of that infonnation is
mies will become looser structures, held
res and their communications networks,
een work and leisure will grow less disand of the home will alter to accommoihis communications-driven life,
ective new world is frightening. Change
ire now seeing the fastest technological
»wn. But at the heart of the communicaJ. that will, in the main, benefit humandge. Information once available only to
• many, instantly and (in terms of distriiread faster, leaping borders. Poor couns to information that was once restricted
aveled only slowly, if at all, beyond it.
lings that once only a few bureaucrats 1
fer services that previously only giants
, the communications revolution is pro-1
iting, leveling the imbalance between:
rhe death of distance, overall, should be'.
the communications revolution began.J
ng communications technologies havel
?ntury: the telephone was invented ins
lission was in 1926; and the electronic!
mid-1940s. For much of that time;|
ach case, a revolution has taken place
> approach the future, we need first tqj
ave been so recent and so far-reachingl
3
The telephone
if
Since the 1980s, the oldest of the three technologies has undergone two
big transformations—an astonishing increase in the carrying capacity
of much of the long-distance network and the development of mobUity.
They result, in the first case, from the use of glass fibers to carry digital
signals, and, in the second, from the steep fall in the cost of computing
|power.
&. For much of its existence, the telephone network has had the least
iJaparity for its most useful service; long-distance communication. A
llross-Atlantic telephone service existed early on: indeed, by the 1930s,
JfrPaul Getty could run his California oil empire by telephone from European hotels, in which he chose to live because their switchboard opera; could make the connections he needed. But even in 1956, when the
iBrst transatlantic telephone cable went on-line, it had capacity for only
IgShty-nine simultaneous conversations between all of Europe and all of
?£rth America. Walter Wriston, former chairman of Citibank, recalls
Jle way it felt to be an international banker in the 1950s and 1960s: "It
|ould take a day or more to get a circuit. Once a connection was made,
ople in the branch would stay on the phone reading books and newsapers all day just to keep the line open until it was needed."
Sjhce the late 1980s, capacity on the main long-distance routes has
l l l j m so. fast that, by the start of 1996, there was an immense and
sing glut, with only 30 to 35 percent of capacity in use. The main
orftfor this breathtaking transformation was the development of
iptic cables, made of glass so pure that a sheet seventy miles thick
se as clear as a windowpane. The first transatlantic fiber-optic
gith capacity to carry nearly forty thousand conversations, went
anly in 1988. The cables that will be laid at the turn of the cenJcarry more than three million conversations on a few strands
Ifach the width of a human hair.
|hile, new cables are being laid; new satellites, which carry
^traffic on less popular routes, are due to be launched; and a
w-orbiting satellites may eventually carry international trafIMnobile telephones. In addition, new techniques are starting
ny more calls to travel on the samefiber.It is as though an
Tty expanding fleet of trucks could suddenly pack several
^-products into the same amount of space as before.
4
5
6
7
�The Death of Distance
$2,00
The Comr
jy5o
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lologies to compress signals
funtil it costs no more to telephoi
Ipie house next door,
lei capacity has been increasing.
^Cellular communication, which d
following World War II, became o
i-980s, when the collapse in the cos
ovide the necessary processing p<
v, the mobile telephone may arguab
|pf communicating that the world 1
cone telephone subscription in seven
pfiony's share will continue to rise: in
ll|>f all new telephone subscriptions.
ae to use mobile telephones almost ex
They will be able to communicate fron
e-fcourse of 1996, two stranded dim':
aobile telephones to call their wives. O
away in Hong Kong, was able to arran
Ipfcer, sadly, could merely say a last farew
|The mobile telephone also allows betu
iunk of time in many peoples' lives: ti
leir commuting time more fully, but
ggreater: passengers can be checked in for
ie airport, for example, and maintena
?ore effidently, knowing exactly whe:
|arrive. The mobile telephone thus raises
gously idle time.
8
—
1
1^
/
Madagjsta;
Maoagaxai
Bangui
.
^
'Luanda*
/ Biijumb.ia
NTtfgiiCTa*#
Figure 1-2 The Geography of International Telephone Charges
The cost of making a telephone call from the United States to the rest of the world.
Countries are arranged according to cost per minute of a three-minute, daytime, directdialed international call. The scale of the concentric circles is stated in U.S. cents per
minute. A city that costs $1.40 per minute to call would appear between the $1.00 and
$1.50 circles. Call charges based on June 1994 MCI tariffs and June 1994 exchange rates.
Source: TeleGeography, Inc.—Washington, DC.
This massive growth in capacity is increasingly reflected in tariffs.
MCI's generous Mother's Day gesture cost the firm plenty, but would
have been impossible without the growth in capacity on the American
network, where the traffic on that day is probably the heaviest of any
day, anywhere in the world. Already, international and long-distance
call rates have been falling, changing our mental map of the world, in
ways that are vividly illustrated in Figure 1 -2. But the cost of carrying an
extra telephone call across the Atlantic and on many other long-distance
routes has fallen much further and now approaches zero. This fall in
rates is the drive behind the death of distance.
By the middle of 1997, the threat of a glut had receded. The reason
was the enormous increase in demand created by the Internet, which
carries messages of many sorts at prices that ignore distance. When distance carries no price penalty, people communicate more, and in new
ways. In the future, the lavish plans to build more capacity and inge-
|The television
I'At the end of the Second World War a
p||;worldwide had a television set. By 1996, t:
jj^Jr-than 840 million—two-thirds of the wo
| | ! technology of television sets has not chan
;|?f the transmission of programs has been n
:-v ment of communications satellites. Now
nel capacity—has begun.
�The C o m m u n i c a t i o n s R e v o l u t i o n
nious technologies to compress signals will continue to push prices
down, until it costs no more to telephone from New York to London
than to the house next door.
While capacity has been increasing, the telephone has become
mobile. Cellular communication, which dates back to the period immediately following World War II, became commercially viable only in the
early 1980s, when the collapse in the cost of computing made it possible to provide the necessary processing power at a low enough cost.
Now, the mobile telephone may arguably be the most successful new
may of communicating that the world has ever seen—already, more
Ithan one telephone subscription in seven is to a mobile service. Mobile
ephony's share will continue torise:in 1996, it accounted for 47 perEent of all new telephone subscriptions. For conversations, people will
gome to use mobile telephones almost exclusively.
iThey will be able to communicate from every corner of the globe: in
ie course of 1996, two stranded climbers on Mount Everest used
>bile telephones to call their wives. One wife, two thousand miles
way in Hong Kong, was able to arrange her husband's rescue; the
ier, sadly, could merely say a last farewell.
^The mobile telephone also allows better use of the most underused
of time in many peoples' lives: traveling time. People will use
^ commuting time more fully, but other benefits may be even
iter: passengers can be checked in for flights during the bus ride to
>n, for example, and maintenance staff can schedule visits
^efficiently knowing exactly when equipment in transit will
j||The mobile telephone thus raises productivity by using previse time.
8
national Telephone Charges
D the United States to the rest of the world.
m
;t per minute of a three-minute, daytime, direct'.he concentric circles is stated in U.S. cents per
nute to call would appear between the $1.00 and
e 1994 MCI tariffs and June 1994 exchange rates,
ton, DC.
acity is increasingly reflected in tariffs. ^
gesture cost the firm plenty, but would <
the growth in capacity on the American I
hat day is probably the heaviest of anyj
Jready, international and long-distanceJj
inging our mental map of the world, in'I
in Figure 1 -2. But the cost of carrying anl
.tlantic and on many other long-distancel
and now approaches zero. This fall i n j
ith of distance.
hreat of a glut had receded. The reasor
demand created by the Internet, which|
at prices that ignore distance. When dis|
people communicate more, and in ne
plans to build more capacity and inge||
9
Ift}
ilevision
lend of the Second World War, a mere eight thousand homes
We had a television set. By 1996, that number had risen to more
^million—two-thirds of the world's households. The basic
y of television sets has not changed over those fifty years, but
ssion of programs has been revolutionized by the developlunications satellites. Now another revolution—in chanV^-has begun.
10
�The Comr
The Death of Distance
In fall 1963, people around the world witnessed for the first time anl
important but distant political event as it was taking place. The 1962!
launch of Telstar, the first private communications satellite, had made |
possible the live global transmission of the funeral of President John F.
Kennedy." The psychological impact was huge: this unprecedented
new link among countries would change perceptions of the world, creating the sense that the world's peoples belonged to a global, not
merely local or national, community.
The 1988 launch by PanAmSat of the first privately owned commercial
international (as opposed to domestic) satellite, constituted another
milestone, cutting the cost of transmitting live television material around
the world. As recently as the 1970s, more than half of all television news
was at least a day old. Today, almost all news is broadcast on the day it
occurs. Big events—the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Gulf War, the O. J.
Simpson trial verdict—go out to billions of viewers as they happen.
Until recently, most television viewers around the world have had
access to perhaps half a dozen television channels at most—and often
to only two or three. The main reason is purely physical: analogue television signals are greedy users of spectrum. Only in the United States
and a handful of other countries, and mainly only since the 1980s, have
cable-television networks—less constrained by the limits of spectrum—brought people real viewing choice.
Now choice is expanding with breathtaking speed. Toward the end of
the 1980s, communications satellites began to broadcast directly to a
small dish attached to people's homes, thus inexpensively distributing
multichannel television. Suddenly, more viewers had more choice than
ever before.
In the mid-1990s came another revolutionary change: broadcasters
began to transmit television in digital, not analogue, form, allowing the
signal to be compressed and, consequently, far more channels to be
transmitted, whether from satellite, through cable, or even over the air.
Like the long-distance parts of the telephone network, a service that
had been constrained by capacity shortage for most of its existence has
suddenly begun to build more capacity than it knows what to do with.
The result will be a revolution in the nature of television. For those
who want it (most of us), the old passive medium will remain, a relaxing way to pass the evening after a day spent at work. But television—
the business of transmitting moving pictures—will develop many more
12
l|lkcluding new roles in busim
ffltenge, and in a way that n
lliing in television is not transr
Pespecially live programming. I
Sle at no cost to viewers. IncreaIthey most want to watch.
letworked computer
evyest of the three building blocks.
lie electronic computer, has evolvet
founder of IBM, thought that tlu
fSfive computers. As recently as
ifing $167,500, could hold a mere thii
TO key changes have altered this p
jsfgrown dramatically. As a result, the
id-has become a consumer durable, wii
||verything from automobiles to child
mpollo 13 contained less computin
Uritendo games machine." Second, co
cted to each other. The Internet, essem
bid's computers, makes apparent the
irked computers.
pThe increase in computing power has
|?Moore's Law," after Gordon Moore,
^orld's leading maker of computer ch:
iputer. In 1965, Moore forecast that
bit every eighteen months to two ye.
lecades, as engineers have found wa\
|grated circuits of transistors onto chips|chip, standard in a computer bought an
|fifty-four million numerical calculation
|the standard three years later, could pt
|lion calculations per second. And Mooi
j|2006, according to Intel forecasts, chip^
||'powerful and will cost one-tenth as mi
^Figure 1-3.)
13
�The C o m m u n i c a t i o n s R e v o l u t i o n
he world witnessed for the first time an
event as it was taking place. The 1962
ite communications satellite, had made
ssion of the funeral of President John F.
impact was huge: this unprecedented
Id change perceptions of the world, creId's peoples belonged to a global, not
unity.
u of the first privately owned commerdal
lomestic) satellite, constituted another
msmitting live television material around
70s, more than half of all television news
most all news is broadcast on the day it
f the Berlin Wall, the Gulf War, the O. J.
) billions of viewers as they happen,
m viewers around the world have had
television channels at most—and often
i eason is purely physical: analogue teleof spectrum. Only in the United States
s, and mainly only since the 1980s, have
s constrained by the limits of specving choice.
h breathtaking speed. Toward the end of |
[ellites began to broadcast directly to a?
homes, thus inexpensively distributing!
nly, more viewers had more choice than!
;
her revolutionary change: broadcastersl
ligital, not analogue, form, allowing thej
consequently, far more channels to
llite, through cable, or even over the aiifj
the telephone network, a service thatf
iy shortage for most of its existence ]
apacity than it knows what to do wit
n in the nature of television. For those
Id passive medium will remain, a relaxj
:r a day spent at work. But television-J
ving pictures—will develop many mort
functions, including new roles in business. The finances of television
will also change, and in a way that many viewers will resent. The
scarcest thing in television is not transmission capacity, but desirable
programs, especially live programming. In the future, these will rarely
be available at no cost to viewers. Increasingly, viewers will pay directly
i'for what they most want to watch.
jiThe networked computer
flhe newest of the three building blocks of the communications revolupion, the electronic computer, has evolved fastest. In 1943 Thomas Wat|sbn, founder of IBM, thought that the world market had room for
bout five computers. As recently as 1967, a state-of-the-art IBM,
posting $167,500, could hold a mere thirteen pages of text.
iTwo key changes have altered this picture. First, computing power
'as grown dramatically. As a result, the computer can be miniaturized
id has become a consumer durable, with computing power embedded
|everything from automobiles to children's toys. The main processor
JApollo 13 contained less computing power than does a modern
itendo games machine. Second, computers are increasingly concted to each other. The Internet, essentially a means of connecting the
jtld's computers, makes apparent the spectacular power of such netted computers.
ae increase in computing power has followed a prindple known as
•ore's Law," after Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, now the
i's leading maker of computer chips, the brains of the modern
guter. In 1965, Moore forecast that computing power would douvery eighteen months to two years. So it has done for three
les, as engineers have found ways to squeeze ever more inte1 circuits of transistors onto chips—small wafers of silicon. A 486
standard in a computer bought around 1994, could perform up to
pour million numerical calculations per second. A Pentium chip,
uidard three years later, could perform up to two hundred milIculations per second. And Moore's law continues to apply. By
^cording to Intel forecasts, chips will be one thousand times as
l and will cost one-tenth as much as they did in 1996. (See
13
14
15
16
�10
The C c
The Death of Distance
100
IBM mainframe
Log scale
10
Digital V X
A
Sun Microsystems 2
IBM P
C
0.1
0.01
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
Figure 1-3 Moore's Law in Action
Cost of information processing in dollars per instruction per second, 1975 = 100.
Source: Global Economic Prospects and-the Developing Countries 1995, World Bank.
As the power of the chip has multiplied, the price of computing
power has fallen, computer size has decreased, and computer capacity
has risen. This has had implications for many aspects of communications: the development of mobile telephones, for example, and of the
"set-top boxes" that decode encrypted television signals. A landmark
occurred in 1977, when Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, two young
computer enthusiasts, launched the Apple II, opening the way for the
computer to become a household good. Today, 40 percent of homes in
the United States contain a computer.
Meanwhile, responding to the limitations of computers in the 1960s,
when they were large, expensive and scarce, the American Defense
Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) backed an
experiment to connect computers across the country as a way to
exchange messages and share their processing power. This effort yielded
a nationwide network that initially linked only university computers.
Because different computers in those early days had different operating
^aVcomrnon standard or p:
it'of the network. In respon
t Protocol (TCP/IP) was dew
the format for packaging
£ i s the essence of the Intei
ftp: a common language and a over the world can talk
r|they are PCs or Apple Macs, w
aes or domestic laptops. Thrc
iputer networks can connect wit
ietwork.
ibugh the use of the Internet grev
^doubling every year, its transfo:
jpnly from about 1993 to 1994. At
a9ie,it possible to accommodate on-lii
lies, rather than just text, making
..c,-interesting to look at. This was
ing programmer, and his colleague
y.'developed the most successful .
wed navigation fairly easily from on
iation to another, even if that secont
iputer in another part of the work:
Souse" control to point and click on a
iJrhese transformations have had th
'vastly increase the world's compui
pped grinding inexorably along, thi
low immense multiplication of comp
|iinany different computers. Second, ttu
tty/accident, as the first working moc
Jiperhighway" that politicians and bi
Jialked so much about in the early 1990s
Ifclobal means of communicating but ah
Kmation on a gigantic scale. Third, the h
gttous new industry dedicated to develoj
|to sell across it. Only in 1994 did the nu
Sconnected to the Internet overtake the n
|Now, tens of thousands of companies,
^ r e racing to find profitable uses for thi
�The C o m m u n i c a t i o n s Revolution
Sun Microsystems 2
Pentium-chip PC
Dllars per instruction per second, 1975 = 100.
ndthe Developing Countries 1995. World BankJ
las multiplied, the price of computing]
e has decreased, and computer capacity!
itions for many aspects of communica-1
ile telephones, for example, and of the S
icrypted television signals. A landmark^
Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, two young|
i the Apple II, opening the way for thej
ild good. Today, 40 percent of homes irij
iputer.
e limitations of computers in the 1960s|
ive and scarce, the American Defense|
ch Projects Agency (ARPA) backed a i |
ters across the country as a way tc|j
leir processing power. This effort yielde
ially linked only university computer^
[hose early days had different operating
11
standards, a common standard or protocol became a fundamental
requirement of the network. In response. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) was developed and, since the early 1980s,
has provided the format for packaging all data sent over the Internet.
TCP/IP is the essence of the Internet. It provides an electronic
I'-Esperanto: a common language and a set of rules through which comjlputers all over the world can talk to one another, regardless of
Iwhether they are PCs or Apple Macs, whether they are vast university
>mainframes or domestic laptops. Through the Internet, any number
fbf computer networks can connect with one another and behave as a
Isingle network.
|., Although the use of the Internet grew rapidly in the 1980s and early
^1990s, doubling every year, its transformation into a popular success
ites only from about 1993 to 1994. At that point, the World Wide Web
ade it possible to accommodate on-line graphics, sound, and moving
res, rather than just text, making the Internet more versatile and
pre interesting to look at. This was thanks to Marc Andreessen, a
ig programmer, and his colleagues at the University of Illinois.
|ey developed the most successful graphical Web browser, which
ved navigation fairly easily from one screenful (or "page") of inforItibn to another, even if that second page was held on a different
Iguter in another part of the world, simply by using a hand-held
5use" control to point and click on a shaded word on the screen.
|se transformations have had three main consequences. First,
||gtstly increase the world's computing power. Even if Moore's law
grinding inexorably along, the Internet has the potential to
lense multiplication of computing power simply by linking
^fferent computers. Second, the Internet has emerged, almost
lent, as the first working model of the "global information
ighway" that politicians and big communications companies
(jinuch about in the early 1990s. It has become not only a new
of communicating but also a new global source of inforQ a gigantic scale. Third, the Internet has given birth to a vigKindustry dedicated to developing ways to use it and services
3|s it. Only in 1994 did the number of commercial computers
the Internet overtake the number of academic computers,
^thousands of companies, many of them small start-ups,
id profitable uses for this new technology. Never in his17
1
�12
The Death of Distance
tory have so many entrepreneurs attempted, in so short a space of time,!
to develop uses for an innovation.
The Internet is thus a global laboratory, allowing individuals as well!
as the marketing departments of multinationals and academics in top
universities to pioneer uses for communications technology. Already it i
carries telephone and video conferences as well as live television and
radio broadcasts. All sorts of communications experiments, carried out
on the Internet, will feed through into the other media, changing and
developing them. The Internet thus functions as both a prototype and a
testing ground for the future of communications. Watching its evolution, we can catch a glimpse of what lies ahead.
Competition and Its Consequences
For people to reap quickly the benefits brought by the communications
revolution, competition will be essential, because competition is the
best guarantor of choice, quality service, and low prices. Take the example of the car industry. Countries with little competition, such as Russia
and India, tend to have few car producers and few imports. Not only do
they fail to produce good cars, but the liberating impact of the automobile has largely passed them by.
That may sound obvious. But the telephone and television industries have been amazingly protected by comparison with, say, automobiles or other consumer durables. Around the world, most people have
had to buy their local telephone connection from the only company
available; only one, or at most a handful, of companies have had the
right to carry calls across international borders; and choice in television has been limited. Outside the United States, most countries have
had a state-owned national telephone giant and often a state-owned
television giant, as well.
Two factors are changing this communications picture. First, technology, which once imposed constraints on competition in telephone and
television networks, is now making competition easier by massively
increasing the number of potential delivery channels. Second, some
governments are keen to foster competition, because they see that consumers will benefit from it, and that the country will suffer without it.
The Commun,
•tition will eventually happen. Bi
Ipblicy issues. The first concerns i
|HOW can countries achieve genuine
|iiey ensure that a single private m
Hhe industry in the future as has h.
; businesses are prone to concen
BM and Microsoft as well as monsteriitsche Telekom. To cope, govemmc
^regulators to being active promoterond policy issue concerns the servi<
^networks. In the past, it has been
pie; child pornography is barred from t.
liion has been provided by a monopoly o
ithe future, patrolling the frontier will
pyemments will find it much more diffi
vaves, but democratic governments wi
Ipit on-screen child pornography, racism,
^influence of technology
ls*k
)';changes will particularly help to ensure u .
efcosts of providing a service, whether a ic
e;a new television program, or a news s
^
;ld Wide Web, have fallen steeply. That has
Sies to invent services for customers. Secon.
vered—to the home or the office—througl
ady, a telephone call can be received on an
^Internet using a personal computer. Usin
pie can both watch television and explore
Both these changes spring from a crucial
Revision, and the networked computer const i
^handle material in digital form. Compuu
[ormation this way; they work in the sin
s, or pulses and lack-of-pulses, that is dig
flffcomputing has grown, it has become possi
^formation that would once have been transn
Jjich as music, speech, and moving pictures
;
�The Communications Revolution
rs attempted, in so short a space of time,
in.
laboratory, allowing individuals as well
of multinationals and academics in top
communications technology. Already it
nferences as well as live television and
mmunications experiments, carried out
igh into the other media, changing and
!hus functions as both a prototype and a
if communications. Watching its evoluwhat lies ahead.
'enefits brought by the communications
essential, because competition is the
.' service, and low prices. Take the exams with little competition, such as Russia
producers and few imports. Not only do
>ut the liberating impact of the automout the telephone and television Indus-j
ected by comparison with, say, automo- j
es. Around the world, most people have^
ne connection from the only company^
a handful, of companies have had the^
national borders; and choice in televi-|
the United States, most countries havej
lephone giant and often a state-owned|
communications picture. First, technol-l
raints on competition in telephone andjj
aking competition easier by massivelya
mtial delivery channels. Second, some|
competition, because they see that corij
I that the country will suffer without iC
13
So competition will eventually happen. But deregulation raises two
^- important policy issues. The first concerns the way these services are
^delivered. How can countries achieve genuine competition? In particular,
g|how can they ensure that a single private monopoly does not come to
^dominate the industry in the future as has happened in the past? ComIfinurucations businesses are prone to concentration: they create giants
Isuch as IBM and Microsoft as well as monsters like Japan's NTT and Gerfinany's Deutsche Telekom. To cope, governments have to go from being
Restrictive regulators to being active promoters of competition.
j.-The second policy issue concerns the services that actually flow over
tie new networks. In the past, it has been easy to ensure that, for
iple, child pornography is barred from television screens, because
television has been provided by a monopoly or a handful of companies.
St in the future, patrolling the frontier will be much harder. Repres: governments will find it much more difficult to keep free ideas off
fie airwaves, but democratic governments will also find it far harder to
vent on-screen child pornography, racism, fraud, or libel.
^influence of technology
I
^changes will particularly help to ensure more choice. First, many of
Cgsts of providing a service, whether a telephone calling-card serp new television program, or a news service delivered over the
ibWide Web, have fallen steeply. That has allowed many new com5:to invent services for customers. Second, the same service can be
-to the home or the office—through more than one channel,
y, a telephone call can be received on an ordinary handset or over
let using a personal computer. Using specially designed sets,
||an both watch television and explore the Internet.
|these changes spring from a crucial fact: the telephone, the
- and the networked computer constitute three different ways
^material in digital form. Computers have always handled
this way: they work in the single stream of ones and
pulses and lack-of-pulses, that is digital code. As the capacity
: has grown, it has become possible to convert into digits
t|that would once have been transmitted in analogue waves,
jfigic, speech, and moving pictures. First the telephone net:
�14
The Death of Distance
The Comm
work and now, increasingly, television networks are switching fror
Mice of government
analogue to digital formats.
The resulting electronic common currency blurs the traditiona
iiuntries, governments have ri
divide between media. Once information is handled digitally—whethe
v-ovm orfinanceat least one tel
a Hollywood blockbuster or a telephone conversation—no technica
raged them to suppress comp^
requirements mandate a special machine for each task (although there
phone companies up for sale, an
may still be an ergonomic need). Instead, digital information can
i encouraging—competition. 1
sent from one computer to another—or from a computer across a tele-j
lents may not be able to stop i
phone network to the set-top box of a television. A personal compute
Scan certainly hold it back for a d^
connected by a modem to the telephone network can already transmit!
itrast, in the United States, the
video pictures (although they may be small and jerky) and telephones
owed long-distance and local tele
calls (although the sound quality at times would make even Alexander!
pn operators to enter one anothe
Graham Bell wince).
been a hindrance). In Britain
providing telephone services sh
Thus, competition of all sorts is becoming easier. Around the world,!
the World Trade Organization in
telephone companies are experimenting with sending television signals]
gtart to open their telecommunicati.
over their wires, and cable-television companies are carrying telephone]
calls on their networks. So far, it must be said, companies have found it]
early in 1998. The richer countritdifficult to transfer their skills: for instance, the telephone companies,
|dy agreed on that deadline for allow
have had a bad time in the television business. More important, in the)
loping countries are starting to see ti
long run, will be the way that both industries can be challenged by;
• opening their markets and even bv
upstarts on the Internet.
Id and run their telephone networks
is fact, competition will need govern i
That challenge will grow as it becomes possible to overcome the |
ed. Big networks are more useful to t
biggest technical barrier to competition—the absence of a high-capacity
how irritating it would be if your i.
two-way link to homes and small businesses. At present, twisted pairs
p other people on the same service, rai
of copper wire, a technology designed for carrying the human voice and 1
in the world. So newcomers—siu
unchanged for 120 years, constitute the usual local connection. Some |
lephone service provider—have to barg
homes also have cable-television links, designed to work in one direcMonopolies, companies such as Bell Atlam
tion only. Both technologies are unsuited to carry Internet traffic, which
r-permission to link into their networl
requires plenty of capacity (so that those video pictures look less jerky)
||gainst them—unless government intervc:
and a two-way flow.
A huge effort is now being made to find ways to increase capacity
inexpensively: by using digital compression to squeeze more informaphe protection problem
tion through ordinary telephone lines, for instance; by using wireless to
1
a fixed receiver, instead of a wire connection; by replacing copper with
fiber-optic cable; by adapting cable-television networks; and by using ^ v e n the most liberal societies have had i
combinations of satellite and telephone. Over the first decade of the
|g>n is made publicly available. Some of th
next century, measures such as these will allow homes and small busi- jsaying or showing illegal things—such as ^
nesses much faster access to the Internet.
i|l§;
ertising or racist abuse. Others art
IP
? n t adv
w
�The C o m m u n i c a t i o n s Revolution
idevision networks are switching from
ommon currency blurs the traditional
iformation is handled digitally—whether ;
a telephone conversation—no technical |
al machine for each task (although there j
ed). Instead, digital information can be.^
other—or from a computer across a tele-^
box of a television. A personal computer]
telephone network can already transmit !
may be small and jerky) and telephone|
lity at times would make even Alexanderl
ts is becoming easier. Around the world,'
rimenting with sending television signals;
evision companies are carrying telephone
. it must be said, companies have found it;
s: for instance, the telephone companies]
I evision business. More important, in thea
at both industries can be challenged
as it becomes possible to overcome
npetition—the absence of a high-capacit
mall businesses. At present, twisted pa
esigned for carrying the human voice and
istitute the usual local connection,
ion links, designed to work in one dire
re unsuited to carry Internet traffic, whic
) that those video pictures look less je
-l made to find ways to increase capadtj
il compression to squeeze more inform'a
>ne lines, for instance; by using wireless I
vire connection; by replacing copper wit
: cable-television networks; and by usi
1 telephone. Over the first decade of
as these will allow homes and small bi
ihe Internet.
15
The influence of government
^In most countries, governments have run the telephone service; in
Imany, they own or finance at least one television channel. This pattern
fhas encouraged them to suppress competition. Now, many have put
ftheir telephone companies up for sale, and more and more are allovvling—or even encouraging—competition. That is good news. In the long
i , governments may not be able to stop competition from happening,
t they can certainly hold it back for a decade or two if they really try.
ps-In contrast, in the United States, the Telecommunications Act of
1996 allowed long-distance and local telephone companies and cablelevision operators to enter one another's markets (although court
ises have been a hindrance). In Britain, cable-television companies
ave been providing telephone services since 1991. Under a deal negoated at the World Trade Organization in early 1997, several countries
start to open their telecommunications markets to foreign comtitors early in 1998. The richer countries of the European Union had
eady agreed on that deadline for allowing competition. Quite a few
eloping countries are starting to see that they win more than they
iby opening their markets and even by allowing foreign companies
ild and run their telephone networks.
fact, competition will need government help to become estab1. Big networks are more useful to customers than small ones—
| how irritating it would be if your mobile telephone could reach
Jier people on the same service, rather than any telephone subin the world. So newcomers—such as, perhaps, your mobileone service provider—have to bargain with the big telephone
olies, companies such as Bell Atlantic or BT or Deutsche Telekom,
ission to link into their networks. The cards are all stacked
; them—unless government intervenes to set fair rules.
iction problem
•imost liberal societies have had rules about the way informa|de publicly available. Some of the rules are to prevent people
||howing illegal things—such as child pornography or fraudusing or racist abuse. Others are to protect the ownership of
�16
The Death of Distance
ideas and other creative endeavors from intellectual piracy. Experience
with the Internet suggests that all of these rules will be harder to apply!
for two reasons. First, the Internet allows much more information tol
flow freely across borders. With the Internet, a computer user in thej
United States can look at material held on a computer in, say, the!
Netherlands that would be prohibited if it appeared in an American!
television program or magazine. The Internet's ability to cross borders I
makes it difficult to regulate using only national laws. All sorts of mate- j
rial can travel over the Internet in ways that escape national laws on^
gambling, pornography, racism, fraud, libel, terrorism, and taxation.:
Second, the Internet blurs the distinction between the public and the)
private spheres. Television broadcasts have been regulated because they \
are a public medium; what people say in a telephone call is almost as
unregulated as private conversation. The Internet blurs that distinction
too: the same medium can deliver a private communication (such as
electronic mail) and a public one (such as a Web broadcast or a visit to
a Web "site") over the same connection and to the same screen.
In the past, the three communications industries have all played by
different rules, often policed by different regulatory bodies. The software business has been regulated like most other industries, which is to
say hardly at all; television companies have had complicated rules
about who can own them and what they can or cannot show on the
screen; while telephone companies have had rules about the way they
offer their service and the prices they can charge.
For the moment, the three industries, of necessity, will maintain
their separate identities: television is not interactive, the Internet is a
mediocre telephone, and the telephone is not designed to receive video
pictures. But that will change. When it does, the three industries will
have to be regulated in much more similar ways—if at all.
The Long-Term Effects
Imagine the automobile in 1910. Twenty-five years after its invention,
it had already assumed a form recognizable today: it had a gasoline
engine at the front, pneumatic tires, a clutch and a gear box, and its
most advanced models could travel at today's highway speeds. Most
The Commu
jHf all, Henry Ford had started to
gfjtbe automobile would become a i
ae.of the social consequences of ii
Jphysical landscape had yet to ad
jlopping centers did not exist; sub
Ptations; and city centers were still 1
^ N o t only have the geographic cons j
aost of the century to unfold, so ha
aces of increased personal mobilin
Ijobs (who needs ostlers now?) even ar industries and created markets fi
I f ) . It made possible the flight of the nr.
'Jkmerica, from the inner city. And i
iiimg women) to travel where and wlv
^communications revolution will be r
ielevision, and the computer have aire
pmd society in ways unimagined half a
Igiven birth to new jobs: a sign of wealtl
fttq answer your door but a secretary at hlephone has built a vast industry: in mo
Ipany is one of the biggest employers. A
lpa[(<±ange, allowing companies to operate
glionally. Financial markets, the quintessei
. . . . . . i up on global electronic communicat)'
jThe changes brought by television have be
es with which people once filled their tin
liting letters, for example—have dwindlec
Ibf-.television has transformed not only social
lent. For the first time in history, moKjliticians look like (and choose them pa
||ipn manner and image). Like the automo
demands for new skills and has been the ba
P^ith radio, the foundation of the modern ac
l|tne concept of the brand, whose emergence,
[main growth in television ownership in the
^The changes brought by the computer arc
ipomic terms: indeed, one of the mysteries
^century is why so much spending by compa
�ivors from intellectual piracy. Experience J
i all of these rules will be harder to apply,
ernet allows much more information to j
ith the Internet, a computer user in the|
aterial held on a computer in, say, thej
i ohibited if it appeared in an American j
ie. The Internet's abihty to cross borders i
-;ing only national laws. All sorts of mate- j
et in ways that escape national laws on]
n, fraud, libel, terrorism, and taxation.|
: distinction between the public and thej
adcasts have been regulated because theyl
ople say in a telephone call is almost as|
ation. The Internet blurs that distinction!
.diver a private communication (such asa
ine (such as a Web broadcast or a visit to|
mnection and to the same screen,
mnications industries have all played by
by different regulatory bodies. The soft^
ted like most other industries, which is to]]
companies have had comphcated rulesj
i what they can or cannot show on the|
anies have had rules about the way the
es they can charge.
- industries, of necessity, will maintair
ision is not interactive, the Internet is j
•lephone is not designed to receive vide
. When it does, the three industries
nore similar ways—if at all.
10. TVventy-five years after its inventic
n recognizable today: it had a gasoli
c tires, a clutch and a gear box, andffl
travel at today's highway speeds. Mo
The Communications R e v o l u t i o n
17
flnportant of all, Henry Ford had started to mass-produce it, making it
fltear that the automobile would become a normal consumer item.
lyet none of the social consequences of its development were apparUnt. The physical landscape had yet to adjust: highways and out-ofllown shopping centers did not exist; suburbs sprawled only around
Srailway stations; and city centers were still lively hubs of commerce and
jlttdustry. Not only have the geographic consequences of the automobile
ten most of the century to unfold, so have the economic and social
Misequences of increased personal mobility. The automobile destroyed
nyjobs (who needs ostlers now?) even as it created millions more. It
filt new industries and created markets for new skills (truck driving,
s). It made possible the flight of the middle classes, particularly in
America, from the inner city. And it liberated ordinary people
aduding women) to travel where and when they wished,
ie communications revolution will be no different. The telephone,
^television, and the computer have already transformed the econyiand society in ways unimagined half a century ago. The telephone
fgiven birth to new jobs: a sign of wealth is no longer having a butto answer your door but a secretary at home to filter your calls. The
phone has built a vast industry: in most countries, the telephone
ipany is one of the biggest employers. And it has brought commerige, allowing companies to operate globally, rather than merely
ily. Financial markets, the quintessentially global industry, have
Eup on global electronic communications.
^changes brought by television have been every bit as great. Activi which people once filled their time—reading newspapers or
betters, for example—have dwindled in importance. The power
jgsion has transformed not only social life but politics and enterlt. For the first time in history, most people know what their
look like (and choose them partly based on their televihner and image). Like the automobile, television has created
srfbr new skills and has been the basis for new industries. It is,
o, the foundation of the modern advertising industry—and of
gtof the brand, whose emergence, in the 1950s, paralleled the
L in television ownership in the United States,
ges brought by the computer are less evident, at least in ecos: indeed, one of the mysteries of the final quarter of this
IjKhy so much spending by companies on computers has pro-
�18
The Death of Distance
The Commu
duced so little return in higher economic productivity. In homes, tool
the huge sales of personal computers—rapidly drawing level with sales
of television sets in some countries—has not yet changed social behav-|
ior as strikingly as the telephone and television have done. Networked
computers will be another matter. They transform the vast number of
interactive activities—sales calls, management meetings, information!
gathering, problem solving, reporting and communicating—that arei
the bedrock of economic activity. The transformation in the speed and!
capability of such interaction will revolutionize the productivity of up|
to half the work force of the rich world.
18
Key questions for the future
Now a second generation of change is taking place, bringing with it a j
broader range of questions. How will demand for communications technologies evolve? Will the Internet continue to develop as a communications medium in its own right, or will it be used to enhance the television
and the telephone? Will people watch television on their office computer |
screens or use the television at home as a gateway to the Internet?
Beyond that, how will these technological changes alter the world?
The communications revolution will transfonn how we work and shop .J
and how we are governed; our health care and education, our leisure
and social lives; and the shape of companies and of cities and the design 1
of our homes. What really matters are the effects on the economy and '|
society, for inventions can intimately affect the pattern of people's lives.
The evolution of demand
Guessing the way demand for a technology will evolve is a game with a
high failure rate. Even those close to an innovation may fail to spot its
significance. A McKinsey study of AT&T in the early 1980s averred that
"the total market for mobile cellular phones will be 900,000 subscribers
by the year 2000." In fact, by 1996 there were already one hundred
times as many. On that advice, AT&T pulled out of the market, only to
re-enter it at great expense through the purchase of McCaw in the mid1990s. Almost everybody sometimes gets technology wrong.
19
It proviso, here is a guess. The m
sing integration of the Internet \
sion. The most immediate effect i
[ be to allow familiar objects to b
The telephone and the televi
fand Internet technology in ways i
e|their versatility The most pow\
[j|y the telephone companies. Large
Mtional brands, the telephone comj
Rr to exert enormous influence ovc
It least in the short run.
•y may well become the main providi
a premium service—for a fee—ti
§'. They will rarely be innovators, bu;
aerdal use of the Internet, building
IBie telephone so that customers can
invoice contact or use both together ii
Corporation of Internet technology will
jphone can be used. In addition, the
• the combination of the telephone ai
i'storefront anywhere in the world,
itegration of the Internet and tele\
Remain impact on television will be the
fie. As an activity that absorbs time, ra
fllbe vulnerable to competition from i
itions, such as a long telephone call to
inline games.
| l n response, television will become th
/ices. It will still offer popular shows
||he concept of a "channel" with a set tin
r: people will choose when they will \
to increase the overall audience for t!
|tiieir revenue, too, since people will incre.
glesirable content. But a second sort of tek
to offer services such as weather fore
Ipdualized and tailored to a viewer's loc.
|will become more interactive, merging w
^ h groups or electronic games. They n
a t
�The Communications Revolution
i economic productivity. In homes, too,
puters—rapidly drawing level with sales
tries—has not yet changed social behavne and television have done. Networked
iter. They transfonn the vast number of
Us, management meetings, information
jporting and communicating—that are ,
:ty. The transformation in the speed and
will revolutionize the productivity of up \
:h world.
18
lange is taking place, bringing with it al
^ will demand for communications tech-|
let continue to develop as a communica-J
>r will it be used to enhance the television^
watch television on their office computer^
home as a gateway to the Internet?
technological changes alter the world?|
n will transform how we work and shopj
r health care and education, our leist
of companies and of dties and the desig
:ters are the effects on the economy
nately affect the pattern of people's lives|
a technology will evolve is a game withl
lose to an innovation may fail to spot iuj
/ of AT&T in the early 1980s averred tha
llular phones will be 900,000 subscribe
y 1996 there were already one hundred
, AT&T pulled out of the market, only |
3ugh the purchase of McCaw in the nii|
•times gets technology wrong.
19
%. With that proviso, here is a guess. The next few years are likely to see
Ithe increasing integration of the Internet with both the telephone and
jjlhe television. The most immediate effect of the communications revopition will be to allow familiar objects to be used in new and unfamiliar ways. The telephone and the television will both incorporate
iobility and Internet technology in ways that will extend their use and
lincrease their versatility. The most powerful corporate role will be
played by the telephone companies. Largely free from debt, with pow||rful national brands, the telephone companies have the muscle and
ibiquity to exert enormous influence over the future of communicafftons, at least in the short run.
§They may well become the main providers of Internet services, offerj^users a premium service—for a fee—that will be fast, reliable, and
re. They will rarely be innovators, but they will drive forward the
lerdal use of the Internet, building links between the Internet
lithe telephone so that customers can move swiftly between screen
|voice contact or use both together in the same transactions. The
prporation of Internet technology will thus transform the way the
phone can be used. In addition, the global toll-free number will
TOthe combination of the telephone and an Internet site to be used
storefront anywhere in the world.
itegration of the Internet and television will occur differently,
i impact on television will be the way people use their leisure
an activity that absorbs time, rather than saves it, television
Vulnerable to competition from other inexpensive communi|such as a long telephone call to a friend or a session playing
ies.
lionse, television will become the source of several different
K|t will still offer popular shows and entertainment, although
jgept of a "channel" with a set timetable for shows may disaple will choose when they will watch a show. One result will
ease the overall audience for the most popular shows—and
iue, too, since people will increasingly pay to watch the most
Item. But a second sort of television will embrace the Interices such as weather forecasts and traffic reports indiid tailored to a viewer's location and interests. Channels
niore interactive, merging with Internet content, such as
| | r electronic games. They may become visual versions of
�20
The Death of Distance
radio talk shows: participants will be able to see one another, even!
show one another their home videos, on screen. Some such program-]
ming will be moderated and have contributions from experts; others!
will be a jumble of amateur participation.
Apart from enhancing the telephone and television, the Internet
will grow mainly through "intranets," private networks that use its
common language, established by companies for internal communications, and "extranets," to communicate with suppliers, distributors,
and corporate customers. The premium services offered by the big telephone companies will almost certainly have some new name, for the
companies that provide them will not want to be too closely associated
with the chaos of the public Internet. But that will remain and continue to flourish, a hubbub of creativity, communication, congestion,
and crime. Freely accessible to anybody who wants to put anything on
it, the Internet will remain a breeding ground for any number of radically new services.
Patterns of adoption
It takes time for a new technology to find its true markets. Demand for
the personal computer at home boomed once people began to use it as
a superior games machine. Just as people initially thought of the automobUe as a horseless carriage or saw television as radio with pictures,
so today's Internet users are mainly using this new medium for the
same old services.
It takes time, too, for new business models to emerge. People are
used to paying directly for telephone service (although, with toll-free
calls, a growing share of the cost is carried by companies), and they are
used to the idea that advertisers pay for broadcast television. But the
payment structure for the Internet is still developing. It is still not clear
whether users or advertisers will pay, or, as with cable television,
whether payment will be made by some combination of the two.
In the short and medium term, the way people adopt new technologies will be influenced by culture, convenience, and cost. It will also
vary enormously from one country to the next.
The following factors will be among those that determine how each
technology is used in the future:
The C o m
re. If people are used to doing
fto change—especially if, like on
ation, they are over 65. Some of i
err younger populations and fewe
er than the older West to spc
Sssibilities.
Ilpnvenience. Some technologies ca;
on but not in another. It is for inst,
|||fwatch while driving an automobi
levision than to find a Web site. T!
• the use of a technology, the slow
Mon will be. Hence the personal cor:
lused as is the television.
SCost. Demand will be boosted who
IfThe Internet has flourished most in
lleast expensive. In addition, the In
lifor instance, of advertising and proi
U.vices whose costs will be most affe
H electronically distributed, from con
I financial services and information.
|The strength of these factors will van
ie, penetration of communications tec
jthin the rich world. The fixed telephoi
||py universal. But there are still big diffe
telephone services began in 1981, :
as a mobile telephone — making mobil.
alf times as common, relative to populai
jance, where GNP per head is much the
feone in twenty-four. In Canada, three-*
^ a n n e l television, delivered by cable or
ghe country with a culture most similar t.
||ne in twenty. In the United States, ti
Hgiost" computers per thousand people, l :
gtuners usually adopt new technologies <
•
||ans, there are only six.
�The C o m m u n i c a t i o n s Revolution
vill be able to see one another, even
ideos, on screen. Some such programive contributions from experts; others
icipation.
jlephone and television, the Internet
anets," private networks that use its
by companies for internal communicamunicate with suppliers, distributors,
emium services offered by the big telejrtainly have some new name, for the
ill not want to be too closely associated
ternet. But that will remain and conreativity, communication, congestion,
nybody who wants to put anything on
ceding ground for any number of radi-
- Culture. If people are used to doing things one way, they may be
slow to change—especially if, like one-fifth of the rich world's population, they are over 65. Some of the developing countries, with
their younger populations and fewer preconceptions, may thus be
quicker than the older West to spot and take advantage of new
possibUities.
• Convenience. Some technologies can be readily used in one situation but not in another. It is for instance, possible to listen but not
to watch while driving an automobile; it is easier to switch on the
television than to find a Web site. The more effort it takes to master the use of a technology, the slower and more limited its diffusion will be. Hence the personal computer will never be as widely
used as is the television.
1
gy to find its true markets. Demand for'J
boomed once people began to use it as-]
as people initially thought of the auto-!
i saw television as radio with pictures^
ainly using this new medium for the?
usiness models to emerge. People arei
)hone service (although, with toll-free|
is carried by companies), and they are|
s pay for broadcast television. But the
let is still developing. It is still not cleac
vill pay, or, as with cable television!
oy some combination of the two.
:i, the way people adopt new technoloj
re, convenience, and cost. It will als|
try to the next,
among those that determine how e o E
aE
21
Cost. Demand will be boosted when new technologies cut costs.
The Internet has flourished most in the countries where access is
least expensive. In addition, the Internet itself will lower costs—
for instance, of advertising and promoting many services. The ser.vices whose costs will be most affected will be those that can be
i- electronically distributed, from computer software and videos to
^financial services and information.
strength of these factors will vary from one country to another,
^penetration of communications technologies varies widely, even
the rich world. The fixed telephone and the television are virtuiversal. But there are still big differences. In Sweden, where celelephone services began in 1981, more than one person in four
ypobile telephone — making mobile phones more than one and a
ies as common, relative to population, as in the United States. In
gWhere GNP per head is much the same as in Sweden, the figure
twenty-four. In Canada, three-quarters of homes have multi|television, delivered by cable or satelhte. In Australia, perhaps
atry with a culture most similar to Canada's, the figure is about
wenty. In the United States, there are thirty-eight Internet
j|Mnputers per thousand people. In Japan, a country whose consually adopt new technologies almost as rapidly as do Ameri!;are only six.
�22
The Comn
The Death of Distance
Low
0.3
2.0
12.9
Middle
20.5
3.3
Upper
26.3
" 20.5
1
High
53.2
61.2
Figure 1-4 How Access Varies with Wealth
Number of television sets, telephone lines, and PCs per 100 inhabitants, 1995.
Source: International Telecommunication Union "World Telecommunication
Development Report, 1996/97."
Notes: Income groups: U.S. $ GNP per head: low = $725 or less, middle =
$726-$2,895, upper = $2,896-$8,955, high = $8,956 or more.
The differences between developed and developing countries are
greater still. (See Figure 1-4.) Almost one-third of the world's population lives in countries that, added together, have fewer than nineteen
million telephones among them—fewer than in Italy. The whole of
Africa, with its population of five hundred million people, has as many
telephones as Tokyo. But these numbers are changing swiftly, as new
ways of providing telephones, such as wireless telephony, cut the cost
and allow lower-income countries to leapfrog several technological
stages. By around 2020, if not sooner, many developing countries will
have caught up. Their communications will be as good as those of many
of what are now the world's richer nations.
Out in front of the pack, though, will be the United States. What is happening to communications plays particularly to American strengths. The
United States has the right history. It has long had competition in parts of
the telecommunications market; many countries are only now starting to
petition. America has long ha^
" lies, that is relatively new. The l
States. In addition, low pru
Internet traffic), low teleph
_ y based on the length of a call), a
J|s have all helped to drive forwan
Ma this the following cultural fai
lies, such as movie-making, softw
Uy been important. The prima
| . now the world's most widely
phic size of the United States ha
able with long-distance comme
itnd credit-card ordering. Americ.peas and a general tendency to
ns have traditionally been will
ag venture capital accessible.
S these factors will give the United 5
E
itits uses that other countries will
nfit, the first half of the next century, >
ihe present one, will be dominatedrally—by the United States.
tanging the World
ie full importance of an epoch-makii
^generation in which it is made," ol
ie fathers of modern economics, in hi
|piscovery is seldom fully effective for pr
nprovements and subsidiary discovc
pffound it." Not until the middle of t!
what the broadest impacts of nc
Iflie effects will be felt in four main art
ie company, the economy, society ani
luie political process.
^.Commerce, including many kinds o;
' international. Armed with a credii
20
I
�The Communications R e v o l u t i o n
23
flllow competition. America has long had multichannel television; for
j^liost countries, that is relatively new. The Internet itself was developed in
s|he United States. In addition, low prices for leased telephone lines
ffwhich carry Internet traffic), low telephone tariffs (with local charges
Mot usually based on the length of a call), and wide ownership of personal
aputers have all helped to drive forward the use of the Internet.
^Add to this the following cultural factors: the intellectual-property
jfjndustries, such as movie-making, software, and popular music, have
raditionally been important. The primary language of the Internet is
Inglish, now the world's most widely spoken second language. The
Dgraphic size of the United States has made people and businesses
fortable with long-distance commerce, such as mail-order shoplg and credit-card ordering. Americans typically show interest in
ideas and a general tendency to adopt innovations early. And
mericans have traditionally been willing to take commercial risks,
ajting venture capital accessible.
I these factors will give the United States a lead in communications
Kltdts uses that other countries will find impossible to beat. As a
It, the first half of the next century, even more than the second half
ie present one, will be dominated—economically, politically, and
rally—by the United States.
eloped and developing countries are|
most one-third of the world's popula-||
- d together, have fewer than nineteen!
i—fewer than in Italy. The whole ofl
; hundred million people, has as manyl
numbers are changing swiftly, as nevy|
ich as wireless telephony, cut the cost|
ries to leapfrog several technological!
:>oner, many developing countries will|
a tions will be as good as those of many
er nations.
i, will be the United States. What is hap
particularly to American strengths. The
'. It has long had competition in parts q!
nany countries are only now starting tM
|ging the World
a
1 importance of an epoch-making idea is often not perceived in
eration in which it is made," observed Alfred Marshall, one of
hers of modem economics, in his Principles of Economics. "A new
'is seldom fully effective for practical purposes till many minor
anents and subsidiary discoveries have gathered themselves
i t / ' Not until the middle of the next century will it be quite
Ipitt: the broadest impacts of new communications have been,
ts will be felt in four main areas: commerce and the shape of
ay, the economy, society and culture, and government and
^process.
including many kinds of retailing, will become increas|S|tional. Aimed with a credit card, the nearest thing we have
20
�24
The Death of Distance
to a world currency, people will eventually shop around the globe. The!
big barriers, such as customs formalities, delivery costs, and differing!
rules of consumer protection, will gradually decline. Such global retail-f
ing will allow many niche markets to emerge.
Companies will be able to build new links not just with customers butl
with employees in different parts of the country—or around the world.]
Employees in different countries or regions will be able to work in teams j
on the same project. But a bigger consequence will be the reduction in]
the size of firms in many industries. Computers and communications
will allow companies to become networks of independent workers, specializing in what they do best and buying in everything else. Employees
will, therefore, often work in smaller units or on their own.
All kinds of services will be bought in. As communications improve, it
will become easier for companies to hunt for spare capacity and low
prices. A knowledge-based company can buy in much more of what it
needs—design, say, or marketing or packaging—than can a traditional
company. There will be new opportunities to integrate customers and
suppliers, using the corporate communications network as the connective tissue. Suppliers will tap into their customer's electronic data base
to work out what the customer needs and to supply it—just as smoothly
as an in-house supplier would once have done. Some suppliers will serve
many customers, some only one. Technologies such as electronic mail
and computerized billing will reduce the costs of dealing with suppliers
at arm's length. The result of intensified competition will be a greater
emphasis on performance, productivity, and waste reduction.
Economies will benefit from the vast increase in the diffusion of
knowledge and information, the basic building blocks of economic
growth. This revolution will be especially important because innovation—the introduction of new production methods, new products, and
new kinds of industrial organization—is the main force driving growth
and thus living standards. The communications revolution speeds up
the diffusion of innovation. It will thus allow new competitors to spring
up, companies to react quickly, and individuals to spot opportunities.
Information is also essential to make markets work well. Many more
companies will have access to accurate price information, wiping out
excessive profits, enhancing competition, and helping to curb inflation.
For many products, global markets will become more important than
local or national ones. The change will take time: international trade in
The Commui
Imore than trade in goods, is sh.
J But, eventually, trade and fore,
Important, and economies even
j S p a n i e s will become footloose
gthe best bargain of skills and pr,
, 1 be to calibrate wages with proc.
lustries, by world standards. That i
J i for skills. The result may be gre
fe, but more similarity among the p:
Iployed around the world.
Jjy, too, will change, with the disappc
ftween work and home. More people N
1 purpose-built small offices. The offie
_ j aspects of work, such as network!.
psip, thus inverting the familiar roles oi
j l y i l l lose some of their present funci
I f l d develop as centers of entertainmem
"pie go to stay in a hotel, visit a museun
| o r to hear a band. The result may noi
^indeed, when people need to meet the
factually travel farther than before—bu
ilerent kind.
ny people, especially in continental E
_jiunications will erode their cultures an,
I g Anglo-Saxon and Hollywood-driven.
I b o t h of creating and of distributing man^
: likely to reinforce such cultures than v
_..na will never again rival Hollywood, but
levision channels will create many more oi
^iPolitics and government will be transfo
^ n s , changing the balance of power betw*
jflizens. People will become better informe
|municate their views to their government's
pnpre easily. Politicians will become more s
lfl|blic-opinion polls, especially in the estai
j||ho live under dictatorial regimes will fin
Igyith the rest of the world.
�eventually shop around the globe. The
rmalities, delivery costs, and differing
!1 gradually decline. Such global retail•ts to emerge.
1 new links not just with customers but
of the country—or around the world,
or regions will be able to work in teams
•r consequence will be the reduction in
tries. Computers and communications
networks of independent workers, spe.d buying in everything else. Employees
;aller units or on their own.
ught in. As communications improve, it
;es to hunt for spare capacity and low
;>any can buy in much more of what it
g or packaging—than can a traditional
portunities to integrate customers and
mimunications network as the connecto their customer's electronic data base
iceds and to supply it—just as smoothly
ice have done. Some suppliers will serve
e. Technologies such as electronic mail
duce the costs of dealing with suppliers
itensified competition will be a greater
uctivity, and waste reduction,
i the vast increase in the diffusion of j
he basic building blocks of economic j
• especially important because innova-;
iroduction methods, new products, and j
ition—is the main force driving growth j
communications revolution speeds upj
ill thus allow new competitors to spring|
and individuals to spot opportunities,
i make markets work well. Many more|
accurate price information, wiping out|
npetition, and helping to curb inflation.|
irkets will become more important tha
ge will take time: international trade idl
The Communications R e v o l u t i o n
25
services, far more than trade in goods, is shackled by all sorts of regulatory baniers. But, eventually, trade and foreign investment will become
even more important, and economies even more interdependent, than
they are now.
More companies will become footloose—more willing to locate
wherever the best bargain of skills and productivity can be had. The
result will be to calibrate wages with productivity more precisely, in
more industries, by world standards. That in turn will raise the global
premium for skills. The result may be greater pay inequality within
countries, but more similarity among the pay of different groups similarly employed around the world.
^
Society, too, will change, with the disappearance of the old demarca| tion between work and home. More people will work from their homes
!or from purpose-built small offices. The office may become the place for
igthe social aspects of work, such as networking, lunch, and catching up
|0n gossip, thus inverting the familiar roles of home and office. City cenjfters will lose some of their present function as office centers and
gnstead develop as centers of entertainment and culture: places where
ople go to stay in a hotel, visit a museum or gallery, or go out for a
|meal or to hear a band. The result may not necessarily be less travelg—indeed, when people need to meet their electronic contacts, they
ay actually travel farther than before—but the traveling will be of a
fferent kind.
lany people, especially in continental Europe, fear that electronic
runications will erode their cultures and replace them with some[jg Anglo-Saxon and Hollywood-driven. In fact, the decline in the
|both of creating and of distributing many entertainment products is
te likely to reinforce such cultures than to undermine them. French
i will never again rival Hollywood, but the multiplication of global
sion channels will create many more outlets for French films,
pities and government will be transformed by free communica^ changing the balance of power between governments and their
People will become better informed and will be able to com^ite their views to their government's leaders and representatives
|asily. Politicians will become more sensitive to lobbying and to
|Opinion polls, especially in the established democracies. People
|e under dictatorial regimes will find it easier to communicate
I rest of the world.
�26
The Death of Distance
The size of the nation state will also be affected. The death of distance will not only erode national borders; it will reduce the handicaps
that have up untU now burdened fringe countries. That will be of enormous importance for the many small countries that have come into
existence in the past half century. As a result, one economic argument
against secession will be eroded.
Above all, the death of distance will be a force for global peace.
Where countries and their citizens communicate freely, they will surely
be less likely to fight one another. Individuals everywhere will know
more about the ideas and aspirations of human beings in every other
part of the world, thus strengthening the ties that bind us all together.
"And in today, already walks tomorrow," wrote Samuel Taylor
Coleridge. Many people worry about this electronic future. They see the
prospect of many jobs destroyed and a few sets of skills disproportionately rewarded. They worry about society's increasing vulnerability to
technological breakdown and computer crime. The more society relies
on technology, many argue, the bigger the problem when something
goes wrong and computer systems are hacked into or go haywire.
But many of these worries already apply to the non-electronic world.
The water supply, the freeways of Los Angeles, the Tokyo subway—all
make society more vulnerable than before to sudden disruption, but in
exchange for benefits so vast that we accept the risks. And against the
danger of jobs destroyed, we must set new opportunities—including
opportunities forborne who lack them in the non-electronic world. "On
the Internet," says a famous New Yorker cartoon, "nobody knows you're
a dog"—but nobody knows, either, whether you are young or old, black
or disabled, a man or a woman.
This is a revolution about opportunity and about increasing human
contact. It will be easier than ever before for people with initiative and
ideas to turn them into business ventures. It will be easier to discover
information, to learn new things, to acquire new skills. Above all, it will
be easier to find somebody to talk to—to communicate, whether with
friends or strangers, relatives or customers. As a result, the world will,
in all probability, be a better place.
16 telephone lies at the heart of the
lexistence of a century and a bit, the u
and economic life beyond anyt'
light have dreamt of back in 1876
iployment, and information to milli
Sas become the gateway to a new \
Bffvhere will it lead?
i'The revolution now taking place 1
tfie cost of providing a long-distance
|jcM''things a phone can do, and the \
|dephone is so versatile and so widi
jpfound effects. The death of distan,
ng':price of long-distance and intern
|jpng way since 1927, when the f:
led between London and New Y(
fmute call of £15. (See Figure 2-1
gentually it will cost no more to te
a than to telephone to nearby B,
rid where distance, for the first ti
•ifbmmunication.
|At. the same time, the telephon
ttfady it is portable. Increasingly, i
a services. The black Bakelite im
"in the hall and rang just as you
|.be used like a small but imm
ed to the telephone network, it <
.
; around the world. In effect, it
�QR 75
,5
C R Y S T A L
FIRE
The Birth of the Information Age
MICHAEL
LILLIAN
RIORDAN
HODDESON
W. W. Norton & Company
New York London
�DAWN OF AN A G E
r
i]Iiam Shockley was extremely agitated. Speeding through the
frosty hills west of Newark on the morning of December 23, 1947,
he hardly noticed the few vehicles on the narrow country road
leading to Bell Telephone Laboratories. His mind was on other matters.
Arriving just after seven, Shockley parked his MG convertible in the company lot, bounded up two flights of stairs, and rushed through the deserted
corridors to his office. That afternoon his research team was to demonstrate a
promising new electronic device to his boss. He had to be ready. An amplifier
based on a semiconductor, he knew, could ignite a revolution. Lean and hawknosed, his temples graying and his thinning hair slicked back from a proud,
jutting forehead, Shockley had dreamed of inventing such a device for almost
; a decade. Now his dream was about to come true.
About an hour later, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain pulled up at this
fmodem research campus in Murray Hill, New Jersey, twenty miles from New
Ipfork City. Members of Shockley's solid-state physics group, they had made
tie crucial breakthrough a week before. Using litde more than a tiny, nondescript slab of the element germanium, a thin plastic wedge, and a shiny strip of
gold foil, they had boosted an electrical signal almost a hundredfold.
aft-spoken and cerebral, Bardeen had come up with the key ideas, which
Ki quickly and skillfully implemented by the genial Brattain, a salty, silver1 man who liked to tinker with equipment almost as much as he loved to
Ipbrking shoulder to shoulder for most of the prior month, day after day
pt on Sundays, they had finally coaxed their curious-looking gadget into
Ition.
�CRYSTAL
FIRE
That Tuesday morning, while Bardeen completed a few calculadons in his
office, Brattain was over in his laboratory with a technician, making lastminute checks on their amplifier. Around one edge of a triangular plastic
wedge, he had glued a small strip of gold foil, which he carefully slit along this
edge with a razor blade. He then pressed both wedge and foil down into the
duU-gray germanium surface with a makeshift spring fashioned from a paper
clip. Less than an inch high, this delicate contraption was clamped clumsily
together by a U-shaped piece of plastic resting upright on one of its two arms.
Two copper wires soldered to edges of the foil snaked off to batteries, transformers, an oscilloscope, and other devices needed to power the gadget and
assess its performance.
Occasionally, Brattain paused to light a cigarette and gaze through blinds
on the window of his clean, well-equipped lab. Stroking his mustache, he
looked out across a baseball diamond on the spacious rural campus to a
wooded ridge of the Watchung Mountains—worlds apart from the cramped,
dusty laboratory he had occupied in New York City before the war. Slate-colored clouds stretched off to the horizon. A light rain began to fall.
At forty-five, Brattain had come a long way from his years as a roughneck
kid growing up in the Columbia River basin. As a sharpshooting teenager, he
helped his father grow com and raise catde on the family homestead in Tonasket, Washington, close to the Canadian border. "Following three horses and a
harrow in the dust," he often joked, "was what made a physicist out of me."
Brattain's interest in the subject was sparked by two professors at Whitman
College, a small liberal-arts college in the southeastern comer of the state. It
carried him through graduate school at Oregon and Minnesota to a job in
1929 at Bell Labs, where he had remained—happy to be working at the best
industrial research laboratory in the world.
Bardeen, a thirty-nine-year-old theoretical physicist, could hardly have been
more different. Often lost in thought, he came across as very shy and selfabsorbed. He was extremely parsimonious with his words, parceling them out
softly in a deliberate monotone as if each were a precious gem never to be
squandered. "Whispering John" some of his friends called him. But whenever
he spoke, they listened. To many, he was an oracle.
Raised in a large academic family, the second son of the dean of the University of Wisconsin medical school, Bardeen had been intellectually precocious.
He grew up among the ivied dorms and the sprawling frat houses lining the
shores of Lake Mendota near downtown Madison, the state capital. Entering
the university at fifteen, he earned two degrees in electrical engineering and
worked a few years in industry before heading off to Princeton in 1933 to pursue a Ph.D. in physics.
�DAWN
OF A N A G E
Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, as it appeared in the 1950s. In
1947 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley worked in the large building in the foreground at
right.
In the fall of 1945, Bardeen took a job at Bell Labs, then winding down its
wartime research program and gearing up for an expected postwar boom in
^ electronics. He initially shared an office with Brattain, who had been working
ion semiconductors since the early 1930s, and soon became intrigued by these
icurious materials, whose electrical properties were just beginning to be underStood. Poles apart temperamentally, the two jnen became fast friends, often
gplaying a round of golf together at the local country club on weekends.
I Shortly after lunch that damp December day, Bardeen joined Brattain in his
boratory. Outside, the rain had changed to snow, which was beginning to
lulate. Shockley arrived about ten minutes later, accompanied by his
•ss, acoustics expert Harvey Fletcher, and Bell's research director, Ralph
tall, broad-shouldered man fond of expensive suits and fancy bow
Jhe Brass," thought Bardeen a litde contemptuously, using a term he had
B l w l f t P from wartime work with the Navy. Certainly these two executives
U
�CRYSTAL
FIRE
would appreciate the commercial promise of this device. But could they really
understand what was going on inside that shiny slab of germanium? Shockley
might be comfortable rubbing elbows and bantering with the higher-ups, but
Bardeen would rather be working on the physics he loved.
After a few words of explanation, Brattain powered up his equipment. The
others watched the luminous spot that was racing across the oscilloscope
screen jump and fall abrupdy as he switched the odd contraption in and out of
the circuit using a toggle switch. From the height of the jump, they could easily tell it was boosting the input signal many times whenever it was included in
the loop. And yet there wasn't a single vacuum tube in the entire circuit!
Then, borrowing a page from the Bell history books, Brattain spoke a few
impromptu words into a microphone. They watched the sudden look of surprise on Bown's bespectacled face as he reacted to the sound of Brattain's
gravelly voice booming in his ears through the headphones. Bown passed
them to Fletcher, who shook his head in wonder shortly after putting them on.
For Bell Telephone Laboratories, it was an archetypal moment. More than
seventy years earlier, a similar event had occurred in the attic of a boardinghouse in Boston, Massachusetts, when Alexander Graham Bell uttered the
words, "Mr. Watson, come here. I want you."
IN THE WEEKS that followed, however, Shockley was torn by conflicting emotions. The invention of the transistor, as Bardeen and Brattain's solid-state
amplifier soon came to be called, had been a "magnificent Christmas present"
for his group and especially for Bell Labs, which had staunchly supported
their basic research program. But he was chagrined to have had no direct role
in this crucial breakthrough. "My elation with the group's success was tempered by not being one of the inventors," he recalled many years later. " I experienced frustration that my personal efforts, started more than eight years
before, had not resulted in a significant inventive contribution of my own."
Growing up in Palo Alto and Hollywood, the only son of a well-to-do mining engineer and his Stanford-educated wife, Bill Shockley had been raised to
consider himself special—a leader of men, not a follower. His interest in science was stimulated during his boyhood by a Stanford professor who lived in
the neighborhood. It flowered at Cal Tech, where he majored in physics
before heading east in 1932 to seek a Ph.D. at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. There he dived headlong into the Wonderland world of quantum
mechanics, where particles behave like waves and waves like particles, and
began to explore how streams of electrons trickle through crystalline materials
such as ordinary table salt. Four years later, when Bell Labs lifted its Depres-
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain i
�DAWN
OF
AN
AGE
5
sion-era freeze on new employees, the cocky young Californian was the first
new physicist hired.
With the encouragement of Mervin Kelly, then Bell's research director,
Shockley began seeking ways to fashion a rugged solid-state device to replace
the balky, unreliable switches and amplifiers commonly used in phone equipment. His famiharity with the weird quantum world gave him a decided
advantage in this quest. In late 1939 he thought he had come up with a good
idea—to stick a tiny bit of weathered copper screen inside a piece of semiconductor. Although skeptical, Brattain helped him build this crude device early
the next year. It proved a complete failure.
Far better insight into the subtleties of solids was needed—and much purer
semiconductor materials, too. World War I I interrupted Shockley's efforts,
but wartime research set the stage for major breakthroughs in electronics and
communications once the war ended. Stepping in as Bell Labs vice president,
Kelly recognized these unique opportunities and organized a solid-state
physics group, installing his ambitious protege as its co-leader.
Soon after returning to the Labs in early 1945, Shockley came up with
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain in 1948.
�CRYSTAL
FIRE
another design for a semiconductor amplifier. Again, it didn't work. And he
couldn't understand why. Discouraged, he turned to other projects, leaving
the conundrum to Bardeen and Brattain. In the course of their research, which
took almost two years, they stumbled upon a different—and successful—way
to make such an amplifier.
Their invention quickly spurred Shockley into a bout of feverish activity.
Galled at being upstaged, he could think of little else besides semiconductors
for over a month. Almost every moment of free time he spent on trying to
design an even better solid-state amplifier, one that would be easier to manufacture and use. Instead of whooping it up with other sciendsts and engineers
while attending two conferences in Chicago, he spent New Year's Eve cooped
up in his hotel room with a pad and a few pencils, working into the early
morning hours on yet another of his ideas.
By late January 1948 Shockley had figured out the important details of his
own design, filling page after page of his lab notebook. His approach would
use nothing but a small strip of semiconductor material—silicon or germanium—with three wires attached, one at each end and one in the middle. He
eliminated the delicate "point contacts" of Bardeen and Brattain's unwieldy
contraption (the edges of the slit gold foil wrapped around the plastic wedge).
Those, he figured, would make manufacturing difficult and lead to quirky performance. Based on boundaries or "junctions" to be established within the
semiconductor material itself, his amplifier should be much easier to massproduce and far more reliable.
But it took more than two years before other Bell scientists perfected the
techniques needed to grow germanium crystals with the right characteristics to
act as transistors and amplify electrical signals. And not for a few more years
could such "junction transistors" be produced in quantity. Meanwhile, Bell
engineers plodded ahead, developing point-contact transistors based on
Bardeen and Brattain's ungainly invention. By the middle of that decade, millions of dollars in new equipment based on this device was about to enter the
telephone system.
Still, Shockley had faith that his junction approach would eventually win
out. He had a brute confidence in the superiority of his ideas. And rarely did
he miss an opportunity to tell Bardeen and Brattain, whose relationship with
their abrasive boss rapidly soured. In a silent rage, Bardeen left Bell Labs in
1951 for an academic post at the University of Illinois. Brattain quietly got
himself reassigned elsewhere within the labs, where he could pursue research
on his own. The three men crossed paths again in Stockholm, where they
shared the 1956 Nobel prize in physics for their invention of the transistor.
The tension eased a bit after that—but not much.
�'Si •
DAWN
OF A N
AGE
BY THE MID-1950S physicists and electrical engineers may have recognized the
transistor's significance, but the general public was still almost completely
oblivious. The millions of radios, television sets, and other electronic devices
produced every year by such grayflannel giants of American industry as General Electric, Philco, RCA, and Zenith came in large, clunky boxes powered by
balky vacuum tubes that took a minute or so to warm up before anything
could happen. In 1954 the transistor was largely perceived as an expensive
laboratory curiosity with only a few specialized applications such as hearing
aids and military communicadons.
But that year things started to change dramatically. A small, innovative Dallas company began producing junction transistors for portable radios, which
hit U.S. stores at $49.95. Texas Instruments curiously abandoned this market,
only to see it cornered by a tiny, litde-known Japanese company called Sony.
Transistor radios you could carry around in your shirt pocket soon became a
minor status symbol for teenagers in the suburbs sprawling across the American landscape. After Sony started manufacturing TV sets powered by transistors in the 1960s, U.S. leadership in consumer electronics began to wane.
Vast fortunes would eventually be made in an obscure valley south of San
Francisco then filled with apricot orchards. In 1955 Shockley left Bell Labs for
California, intent on making the millions he thought he deserved, founding
the first semiconductor company in the valley. He lured top-notch scientists
and engineers away from Bell and other companies, ambitious men like himself who soon jumped ship to start their own firms. What became famous
around the world as Silicon Valley began with Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory, the progenitor of hundreds of companies like it, many of them far more
successful.
The transistor has indeed proved to be what Shockley so presciendy called
$ the "nerve cell" of the Information Age. Hardly a unit of electronic equipment
| can be made today without it. Many thousands—and even millions—of them
fe, are routinely packed with other microscopic specks onto slim crystalline slivp|ers of silicon called microprocessors, better known as microchips. By 1961
|transistors were the foundation of a billion-dollar semiconductor industry
|whose sales were doubling almost every year. Over three decades later, the
|9P P ting power that had once required rooms full of bulky electronic equipment is now easily loaded into units that can sit on a desktop, be carried in a
gnefcase, or even rest in the palm of one's hand. Words, numbers, and images
sn around the globe almost instantaneously via transistor-powered satellites,
^-optic networks, cellular phones, and telefax machines.
||m>ugh their landmark efforts, Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley had
| | k the first glowing sparks of a great technological fire that has raged
m
u
�CRYSTAL
FIRE
through the rest of the century and shows litde sign of abating. Cheap,
portable, and reliable equipment based on transistors can now be found in
almost every village and hamlet in the world. This tiny invention has made the
world a far smaller and more intimate place than ever before.
NOBODY COULD HAVE forseen the coming revolution when Ralph Bown
announced the new invention on June 30, 1948, at a press conference held in
the aging Bell Labs headquarters on West Street, facing the Hudson River
opposite the bustling Hoboken Ferry. "We have called it the Transistor," he
began, slowly spelling out the name, "because it is a resistor or semiconductor
device which can amplify electrical signals as they are transferred through it."
Comparing it to the bulky vacuum tubes that served this purpose in virtually
every electrical circuit of the day, he told reporters that the transistor could
accomplish the very same feats and do them much better, wasting far less
power.
But the press paid litde attention to the small cylinder with two flimsy wires
poking out of it that was being demonstrated by Bown and his staff that sweltering summer day. None of the reporters suspected that the physical process
silendy going on inside this innocuous-looking metal tube, hardly bigger than
the rubber erasers on the ends of their pencils, would utterly transform their
world.
Editors at the New York Times were intrigued enough to mention the
breakthrough in the July 1 issue, but they buried the story on page 46 in "The
News of Radio." After noting that Our Miss Brooks would replace the regular
CBS Monday-evening program Radio Theatre that summer, they devoted a
few paragraphs to the new amplifier.
"A device called a transistor, which has several applications in radio where
a vacuum tube ordinarily is employed, was demonstrated for the first time yesterday at Bell Telephone Laboratories," began the piece, noting that it had
been employed in a radio receiver, a telephone system, and a television set. "In
the shape of a small metal cylinder about a half-inch long, the transistor contains no vacuum, grid, plate or glass envelope to keep the air away," the column continued. "Its action is instantaneous, there being no warm-up delay
since no heat is developed as in a vacuum tube."
Perhaps too much other news was breaking that sultry Thursday morning.
Turnstiles on the New York subway system, which until midnight had always
droned to the dull clatter of nickels, now marched only to the music of dimes.
Subway commuters responded with resignation. Idlewild Airport opened for
business the previous day in the swampy meadowlands just east of Brooklyn,
�DAWN
OF A N
AGE
supplanting La Guardia as New York's principal destinadon for international
flights. And the hated Red Sox had beaten the world-champion Yankees 7 to 3.
EarHer that week, the gathering clouds of the Cold War had darkened dramadcally over Europe after Soviet occupation forces in eastern Germany
refused to allow Allied convoys to carry any more supplies into West Berlin.
The United States and Britain responded to this blockade with a massive airlift. Hundreds of transport planes brought the thousands of tons of food and
fuel needed daily by the more than 2 million trapped citizens. All eyes were on
Berlin. "The incessant roar of the planes—that typical and terrible 20th Century sound, a voice of cold, mechanized anger—filled every ear in the city,"
reported Time. An empire that soon encompassed nearly half the world's population seemed awfully menacing that week to a continent weary of war.
To almost everyone who knew about it, including its two inventors, the
transistor was just a compact, efficient, rugged replacement for vacuum tubes.
Neither Bardeen nor Brattain foresaw what a crucial role it was about to play
in computers, although Shockley had an inkling. In the postwar years electronic digital computers, which could then be counted on the fingers of a single hand, occupied large rooms and required teams of watchful attendants to
replace the bumed-out elements among their thousands of overheated vacuum tubes. Only the armed forces, the federal government, and major corporadons could afford to build and operate such gargantuan, power-hungry
devices.
Five decades later the same computing power is easily crammed inside a
pocket calculator costing around $10, thanks largely to microchips and the
transistors on which they are based. For the amplifying acdon discovered at
Bell Labs in 1947-1948 actually takes place in just a microscopic sliver of
semiconductor material and—in stark contrast to vacuum tubes—produces
almost no wasted heat. Thus the transistor has lent itself readily to the relent|less miniaturizadon and the fantastic cost reductions that have put digital
|computers at almost everybody's fingertips. Without the transistor, the perjsonal computer would have been inconceivable, and the Information Age it
Spawned could never have happened.
jle Linked to a global communicadons network that has itself undergone a radUgal transformadon due to transistors, computers are now revolutionizing the
i we obtain and share information. Whereas our parents learned about the
[jorld by reading newspapers and magazines or by listening to the baritone
JOlce of Edward R. Murrow on their radios, we can now access far more infortion at the click of a mouse—and from a far greater variety of sources. Or we
' earthshaking events like the fall of the Soviet Union amid the comfort
" living rooms, often the moment they occur and without interpretation.
�10
CRYSTAL
FIRE
While Russia is no longer the looming menace it was during the Cold War,
nations that have embraced the new information technologies based on transistors and microchips have flourished. Japan and its retinue of developing
East Asian countries increasingly set the world's communications standards,
manufacturing much of the necessary equipment. Television signals penetrate
an ever-growing fraction of the globe via satellite. Banks exchange money via
rivers of ones and zeroes flashing through electronic networks all around the
world. And boy meets girl over the Internet.
No doubt the birth of a revolutionary artifact often goes unnoticed amid
the clamor of daily events. In half a century's time, the transistor, whose modest role is to amplify electrical signals, has redefined the meaning of power,
which today is based as much upon the control and exchange of information
as it is on iron or oil. The throbbing heart of this sweeping global transformation is the tiny solid-state amplifier invented by Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley. The crystal fire they ignited during those anxious postwar years has
radically reshaped the world and the way its inhabitants now go about their
daily lives.
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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Michael Waldman
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Michael Waldman was Assistant to the President and Director of Speechwriting from 1995-1999. His responsibilities were writing and editing nearly 2,000 speeches, which included four State of the Union speeches and two Inaugural Addresses. From 1993 -1995 he served as Special Assistant to the President for Policy Coordination.</p>
<p>The collection generally consists of copies of speeches and speech drafts, talking points, memoranda, background material, correspondence, reports, handwritten notes, articles, clippings, and presidential schedules. A large volume of this collection was for the State of the Union speeches. Many of the speech drafts are heavily annotated with additions or deletions. There are a lot of articles and clippings in this collection.</p>
<p>Due to the size of this collection it has been divided into two segments. Use links below for access to the individual segments:<br /><a href="http://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/browse?advanced%5B0%5D%5Belement_id%5D=43&advanced%5B0%5D%5Btype%5D=is+exactly&advanced%5B0%5D%5Bterms%5D=2006-0469-F+Segment+1">Segment One</a><br /><a href="http://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/browse?advanced%5B0%5D%5Belement_id%5D=43&advanced%5B0%5D%5Btype%5D=is+exactly&advanced%5B0%5D%5Bterms%5D=2006-0469-F+Segment+2">Segment Two</a></p>
Creator
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Michael Waldman
Office of Speechwriting
Date
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1993-1999
Identifier
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2006-0469-F
Extent
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Segment One contains 1071 folders in 72 boxes.
Segment Two contains 868 folders in 66 boxes.
Provenance
A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity, and interpretation. The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource.
Clinton Presidential Records: White House Staff and Office Files
Publisher
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William J. Clinton Presidential Library & Museum
Format
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Adobe Acrobat Document
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
paper
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
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KS: From Janeda [2]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Office of Speechwriting
Michael Waldman
Is Part Of
A related resource in which the described resource is physically or logically included.
Box 37
<a href="http://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/show/36404"> Collection Finding Aid</a>
<a href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/7763296">National Archives Catalog Description</a>
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
2006-0469-F Segment 2
Provenance
A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity, and interpretation. The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource.
White House Staff and Office Files
Publisher
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William J. Clinton Presidential Library & Museum
Format
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Adobe Acrobat Document
Medium
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Preservation-Reproduction-Reference
Date Created
Date of creation of the resource.
6/3/2015
Source
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7763296
42-t-7763296-20060469F-Seg2-037-010-2015